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1、 附 錄 附錄A Marketing Strategy Market Segmentation and Target Strategy A market consists of people or organizations with wants,money to spend,and the willingness to spend it.However,within most markets the buyer' needs are not identical.Therefore,a single marketing program starts with

2、identifying the differences that exist within a market,a process called market segmentation, and deciding which segments will be pursued ads target markets. Marketing segmentation enables a company to make more efficient use of its marketing ,it allows a small company to compete effectively by

3、concentrating on one or two apparent drawback of market segmentation is that it will result in higher production and marketing costs than a one-product,mass-market , if the market is correctly segmented,the better fit with customers' needs will actually result in greater efficiency. The three

4、alternative strategies for selecting a target market are market aggregation,single segment,and multiple -aggregation strategy involves using one marketing mix to reach a mass,undifferentiated a single-segment strategy, a company still uses only one marketing mix,but it is directed at only one segme

5、nt of the total multiple-segment strategy entails selecting two or more segments and developing a separate marketing mix to reach segment. Positioning the Product Management's ability to bring attention to a product and to differentiate it in a favorable way from similar products goes a l

6、ong way toward determining that product's management needs to engage in positioning,which means developing the image that a product projects in relation to competitive products and to the firm's other products. Marketing executives can choose from a variety of positioning they decide to use m

7、ore than one for a particular are several major positioning strategies: in Relation to a competitor For some products,the best position is directly against the strategy is especially suitable for a firm that already has a solid differential advantage or is trying to solidify such an fe

8、nd off rival markers of microprocessors,Intel a campaign to convince buyers that its product is superior to company even paid computer makers to include the slogan,"Intel Inside" in their the market leader,Coca-Cola introduces new products and executes its marketing the same time,it keeps an eye

9、 on Pepsi-Cola,being sure to match any clever,effective marketing moves made by its primary competitor. in Relation to a Product Class or Attribute Sometimes a company's positioning strategy entails associating its product with(or distancing it from)a product class or companies try to p

10、lace their products in a desirable class,such as"Made in the USA."In the words of one consultant,"There is a strong emotional appeal when you say,'Made in the USA'".Thus a small sportswear manufacturer,Boston Preparatory Co.is using this positioning strategy to seek an edge over large competitors su

11、ch as Calvin Klein and Tommy Hilfiger,which don't produce all of their products in the U.S.. by Price and Quality Certain producer and retailers are known for their high-quality products and high the retailing field,Sake Fifth Avenue and Neiman Marcus are positioned at one end of the pri

12、ce-quality stores such as Target and Kmart are at the other.We're not saying,however,that discounters ignore quality;rather, they stress low prices.Penney's tired—and for the most part succeeded in—repositioning its stores on the price-quality continuum by upgrading apparel lines and stressing desi

13、gner names. Pricing Pricing is a dynamic process,Companies design a pricing structure that covers all their change this structure over time and adjust it to account for different customers and situations. Pricing strategies usually change as a product passes through its life face im

14、portant choice when they select new product pricing company can decide on one of several price-quality strategies for introducing an imitative pricing innovative products,it can practice market-skimming pricing by initially setting high prices to"skim"the maximum amount of revenue from various seg

15、ments of the it can use market penetration pricing by setting a low initial price to win a large market share. Companies apply a variety of price-adjustment strategies to account for differences in consumer segments and is discount and allowance pricing,whereby the company decides on quantity

16、,functional,or seasonal discounts,or varying types of allowances. A second strategy is segmented pricing, where the company sellers a product at two or more prices to allow for differences in customers, products, or locations. Sometimes companies consider more than economics in their pricing decisio

17、ns,and use psychological pricing to communicate about the product's quality or promotional pricing,companies temporarily sell their product bellow list price as a special-event to draw more customers,sometimes even selling below value pricing, the company offers just the night combination of quali

18、ty and good service at a fair price. Another approach is geographical pricing, whereby the company decides how to price distant customers, choosing from alternative as FOB pricing,uniform delivered pricing, zone pricing, basing-point pricing, and freight-absorption pricing. Finally, international pr

19、icing means that the company adjusts its price to meet different world markets. Distribution Channels Most producers use intermediaries to bring their products to try to forge a distribution channel—a set of interdependent organizations involved in the process of marking a product or serv

20、ice available for use or consumption by the consumers or business user. Why do producers give some of the selling job to intermediaries?After all,doing so means giving up some control over how and to whom the products are use of intermediaries results from their greater efficiency in marking g

21、oods available to target their contacts, experience, specialization, and scales of operation,intermediaries usually offer the firm move value than it can achieve on its own efforts. A distribution channel moves goods from producers to overcomes the major time, place, and possession gaps that

22、separate goods and services from those who would use them. Members of the marketing channel perform many functions. Some help to complete transactions: . . 3.Contact:finding and communicating with prospective buyers. 4.Matching:fitting the offer to the buyer's needs, including su

23、ch activities as manufacturing and packaging. 5.Negotiation:reaching an agreement on price and other terms of the offer so that ownership or possession can be transferred. Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel levels involved. Each layer of marketing intermediarie

24、s that performs some work in brining the product and its ownership closer to the final buyer is a channel level. Because the producer and the final consumer both perform some work, they are part of every channel. When selecting intermediaries, the company should determine what characteristics d

25、istinguish the better ones. It will want to evaluate the the channel member's years in business, other lines carried, growth and profit record, co-operativeness, and reputation. If the intermediaries are sales agents, the company will want to evaluate the number and character of the other lines carr

26、ied, and the size and quality of the sales force. If the intermediary is a retail store that wants exclusive or selective distribution, the company will want to evaluate the store's customers, location, and future growth potential. Understanding the nature of distribution channels is important,

27、 as choosing among distribution channels is one of the most challenging decisions facing the firm. Marketing intermediaries are used because they provide greater efficiency in marking goods available to target markets. The key distribution channel function is moving goods from producers to consumers

28、 by helping to complete transactions and fulfill the completed transaction. Distribution channels can be described by the number of channel levels, which can include no intermediaries in a direct channel, or one to several intermediaries in indirect channels. Promotion Promotion is one of

29、 the four major elements of the company's marketing mix. The main promotion tools——advertising, sales promotion, public relations, and personal selling——work together to achieve the company's communications objectives. People at all levels of the organization must be aware of the many legal and

30、 ethical issues surrounding marketing communications. Much work is required to produce socially responsible marketing communicating in advertising, personal selling, and direct selling. Companies must work hard and proactively at communicating openly, honestly, and agreeably with their customers and

31、 resellers. 附錄B 市場營銷策略 一、市場細(xì)分和目標(biāo)市場策略 具有需求，具有購買能力并愿意花銷的個體或組織構(gòu)成了市場。然而，在大多數(shù)市場中，購買者的需求不一致。因此，對整個市場采用單一的營銷計劃可能不會成功。一個合理的營銷計劃應(yīng)以區(qū)分市場中存在的差異為起點，這一過程被稱為市場細(xì)分，它還包括將何種細(xì)分市場作為目標(biāo)市場。 市場細(xì)分使公司能更加有效地利用其營銷資源。而且，也使得小公司可以通過集中在一兩個細(xì)分上場上有效地參與競爭。市場細(xì)分的明顯缺點是，其導(dǎo)致了比單一產(chǎn)品、單一大市場策略更高的生產(chǎn)和營銷成本。但是，如果市場細(xì)分得當(dāng)?shù)脑?，更加符合?/p>

32、費者的需求，實際上將生產(chǎn)更高的效率。 確定目標(biāo)市場有三種可供選擇的策略，它們是統(tǒng)一市場、單一細(xì)分市場和多重細(xì)分市場。統(tǒng)一市場策略即采取一種營銷組合用到一個整體的、無差異的市場中去。采取單一細(xì)分市場策略，公司仍然僅有一種營銷組合，但它只用在整個市場的一個細(xì)分市場中。多重細(xì)分市場策略需要選擇兩個或更多的細(xì)分市場，并且每個細(xì)分市場分別采用一種單獨的營銷組合。 二、產(chǎn)品定位 管理者將注意力集中于一種品牌，并以恰當(dāng)?shù)姆绞綄⑵渑c類似的品牌相區(qū)分，但這并不意味著該品牌就一定能夠最后贏利。因此，管理者需要進(jìn)行定位，即塑造與競爭品牌和競爭對手的其他品牌相關(guān)的自我品牌形象。

33、 市場營銷人員可以從各種定位策略中加以選擇。有時，他們決定對某一特定產(chǎn)品采用一種以上的策略。以下是幾種主要的定位策略： 1.與競爭者相關(guān)的定位 對一些產(chǎn)品來說，最佳的定位是直接針對競爭對手。該策略特別適用于已經(jīng)具有固定的差別優(yōu)勢或試圖強化這種優(yōu)勢的廠商。為排擠微處理器的競爭對手，Intel公司開展了一項活動使用戶確信它的產(chǎn)品優(yōu)于競爭對手的產(chǎn)品。公司甚至為電腦制造商出錢，讓它們在自己的廣告中帶上“Intel Inside”標(biāo)志。作為市場領(lǐng)導(dǎo)者，可口可樂公司推出新產(chǎn)品并實施其市場營銷策略。同時，它密切注視百事可樂公司，以確保對主要競爭對手的任何一次巧妙、有效的營銷舉措采取相應(yīng)的

34、對策。 2.與產(chǎn)品類別和屬性相關(guān)的定位 有時候，公司的定位策略有必要將自己的產(chǎn)品與其類別和屬性相聯(lián)系（或相區(qū)別）。一些公司盡力將其產(chǎn)品定位在期望的類別中，如“美國制造”。用一句某顧問的話來說，“當(dāng)你說‘美國制造’的時候，有一種強烈的感情因素在吸引著你”。因此，一家名為Boston Preparatory的規(guī)模不大的運動服制造商正在運用這種定位策略，以期勝過那些并非所有產(chǎn)品都在美國制造的勢力強大的競爭對手如Calvin Kiein和Tommy Hilfiger。 3.通過價格和質(zhì)量定位 某些生產(chǎn)者和零售商因其高質(zhì)量和高價格而聞名。在零售行業(yè)，Saks Fi

35、fth Avenue和Neiman Marcus公司正是定位于該價格—質(zhì)量策略的。折扣店Target Kmart則是定位于該策略的反面。我們不是說折扣商店忽視質(zhì)量，而是說它們更加強調(diào)低廉的價格。Penny's公司努力—并且大多獲得了成功—通過升級高級服裝線和強調(diào)設(shè)計者的名字將其商店定位于價格—質(zhì)量策略上。 三、定價 定價是一個動態(tài)的過程，公司會為其所有產(chǎn)品設(shè)計一個定價結(jié)構(gòu)。隨著時間的推移，公司會改變價格結(jié)構(gòu)，并將之調(diào)整到適應(yīng)不同的消費者和形勢的狀態(tài)。 公司應(yīng)采用多樣的價格調(diào)整策略來適應(yīng)消費群體和具體情況的差別。一個是折扣和折讓定價，及公司依批量、功能或季節(jié)來決定折扣或不同

36、形式的折讓。第二個策略是差別定價，即公司為不同的顧客、產(chǎn)品或因地點不同而制定兩個或兩個以上的差別價格。有時公司在作價格決策時不僅考慮經(jīng)濟因素，而且使用心理定價來傳達(dá)有關(guān)產(chǎn)品的質(zhì)量或價值信息。在促銷定價時，公司會在短期內(nèi)以低于商品定價銷售產(chǎn)品，通過大甩賣來吸引更多的顧客，有時甚至低于成本銷售。運用價值定價，公司以公平價格提供相應(yīng)的質(zhì)量和優(yōu)質(zhì)服務(wù)。另一種方法是地區(qū)性定價，公司決定怎樣為遠(yuǎn)距離的客戶定價。通常有以下幾種方法可供選擇：原產(chǎn)地定價、統(tǒng)一交貨定價、區(qū)域定價、基點定價和免收運費定價。最后，國際市場定價意味著公司調(diào)整其價格來滿足不同世界市場的需要。 四、產(chǎn)品的分銷 大部分生

37、產(chǎn)商利用中間商將其產(chǎn)品推向市場。他們努力建立“分銷渠道”—— 一套指向消費者或企業(yè)用戶、提供商品或服務(wù)的彼此獨立建立的組織的總稱。 為什么生產(chǎn)者將部分銷售工作交給中介呢？畢竟，這樣做意味著放棄對產(chǎn)品如何銷售和向誰出售的某種控制。利用營銷中介可以提高商品走向目標(biāo)市場的效率。中介組織以其社會關(guān)系、經(jīng)驗、專長以及經(jīng)營規(guī)模往往為生產(chǎn)商創(chuàng)造比其通過自身的努力所能獲得的更大的價值。 商品通過分銷渠道從生產(chǎn)者手中到達(dá)消費者手中。時間、地點等因素不一致，會使商品和服務(wù)與消費者相分離，而分銷渠道克服了這個矛盾。分銷渠道的作用很多，有些起著促成交易的作用，如： 1.市場調(diào)研 2.促

38、銷 3.接觸客戶的功能：尋找潛在購買者并與之溝通。 4.適銷功能：是供給適應(yīng)購買者的需求，包括加工和包裝。 5協(xié)調(diào)功能：就價格與其他交易條件達(dá)成協(xié)議以促成所有權(quán)的轉(zhuǎn)移。 分銷渠道可以用其涉及到的中間環(huán)節(jié)的多少來描述。將產(chǎn)品及其所有權(quán)向最終消費者專一的過程中的各個層次的營銷中介組織就是渠道層面。由于生產(chǎn)者與消費者都執(zhí)行某種職能，故它們也是分銷渠道的組成部分。 企業(yè)在選擇中間商時，要清楚具有什么樣的特征的中間商是更優(yōu)秀的。企業(yè)通常要考察中間商從業(yè)歷史的長短、經(jīng)營范圍、企業(yè)增長和利潤的記錄、是否具有協(xié)作精神及其聲譽情況。如果該中間商是銷售代理，企業(yè)就

39、要考察其經(jīng)營的其他產(chǎn)品的數(shù)量和特點、銷售規(guī)模和能力。如果該中間商是一個想獲得獨家或非獨家經(jīng)銷權(quán)的零售店，企業(yè)就要考察其顧客的情況、地理位置及其未來的增長潛力。 理解分銷渠道的性質(zhì)是很重要的。因為選擇正確的分銷渠道是企業(yè)決策最重要的內(nèi)容之一。 之所以利用營銷中介組織，是因為他們在是產(chǎn)品進(jìn)入目標(biāo)市場的過程中創(chuàng)造了更高的效率。分銷渠道的最關(guān)鍵的作用是，它能促成交易或輔助完成交易，從而將產(chǎn)品從生產(chǎn)者手中到達(dá)消費者手中。分銷渠道可以用渠道中介環(huán)節(jié)的數(shù)量來描述。在直接營銷渠道中，沒有一個中介環(huán)節(jié)，而在間接營銷渠道中，則有一個或多個中介環(huán)節(jié)。 五、產(chǎn)品促銷 促銷時公司營銷組合四個主要組成部分之一。主要的促銷工具——廣告、營業(yè)推廣、公共關(guān)系和人員推銷互相配合才能達(dá)到公司的溝通目標(biāo)。 組織中各層次的人員必須清楚許多有關(guān)營銷溝通的法律和倫理問題。制定在廣告、人員銷售和直銷方面對社會負(fù)責(zé)的營銷溝通需要做很多工作。公司必須努力和積極，以便使溝通開放、誠實，讓顧客和分銷商滿意。 原文來源： Leonard Berry, A. Parasuraman, and Valarie Zeithaml, 2003 [03-104]