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APPENDIX A: AUDIOSCRIPTS Unit One Chapter 1 Anthropology: The Evolution of Human Endeavor Anthropology: The Study of Human Beings and Their Creations oA. Orientation Listening Script The Greek word for "man" is "anthropos" and the word anthropology has been in the English language for centuries. But just what does the word mean? Literally anthropology means "the study of man." How- ever, as British philosopher Alfred North Whitehead noted, "It is a well- founded historical generalization that the last thing to be discovered in any science is what the science is really about." And as Paul Bohannan, renowned anthropologist, pointed out a number of years ago, "Each science that deals with people has its own definitions of human. An Economist," he explains, "defines a human as a choice-making animal. Philosophers define man as a rationalizing animal. . . ." Anthropology attempts to be all-inclusive-the study of human behavior in all places and throughout time. It specializes in the description of humanistic, sci- entific, biological, historical, psychological, and social views of humans. To paraphrase Barbara Millers statement in her textbook, Cultural Anthropology, the popular impression of anthropology is basedmainly on movies and television shows that depict anthropologists as adven- turers and heroes. Some do have adventures and discover treasures in Egyptian tombs and elsewhere, but mostly, their work is less glam- orous and involves repetitive and tedious activities. Until around the middle of the nineteenth century, anthropology was a term used for all humanists. My lecture today explains the fields and branches of anthropology. Were going to begin by stating that anthropology is the study of human behavior in all places and at all times. Western civilization takes credit for the development of anthropol- ogy, which, as a matter of fact, was a relatively late science. Earlier Greek and Roman philosophers were more interested in speculating about the ideal society rather than describing those known to them. After the onset of the Age of Exploration, which included the discovery of the Americas, as well as travel to other distant places, the study of non-Western people began in earnest. In modern day, anthro- pology is a recognized social science with two broad fields and several branches or subfields. The two broad fields are physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. Let me give you a brief description of each. Physical anthropology is concerned with the development of man as a mammal. Related subjects are anatomy, biology, and paleontology. Physical an- thropologists study the evolution of the human species. One way they do this is by the comparative analysis of fossils-preserved remnants 132 APPENDIX Aof oncelliving creatures and living primates, which include human beings or Homo sapiens. Common fossils are shells, bones, and molds or imprints. These are found buried in the earth or permanently frozen in glaciers. Living primates are analyzed in order to study the mechan- ics of evolution and genetic differences among human populations. Next lets talk about cultural anthropology. This field is the study of learned behavior in human societies. Most cultural anthropologists limit themselves to a few geographic areas, for example, Margaret Mead in Samoa and New Guinea, and Clyde Kluckhohn with the Navajo Indians in the Southwestern United States. I should mention that Kluckbohns work Mirror for Man is considered one of the best in- troductions to anthropology. Cultural anthropology and the scientific study of human culture will be discussed in more detail in our next lecture. The subfields of cultural anthropology are archaeology, linguis- tics, and ethnography. Archaeology is the study of different cultures through material sources rather than direct interviews or observations of the group under study. One example of a famous archaeological site discovered in the past century was King Tuts Tomb near Luxor, Egypt, in 1922. Linguistics, as you probably know, is the study of language as com- munication among humans. Culture is learned and transmitted primarily through language. Ethnography is the systematic description of human societies, mostly based on firsthand fieldwork. Based on ethnographies, anthro- pologists provide ethnologies or explanations of the behavior of differ- ent peoples. A second subfield of ethnography is social anthropology. Social anthropology is concerned with people as social beings. A related subject is, of course, sociology. Let me also mention briefly psychological anthropology, which deals with human personality and feelings. These are greatly influ- enced by an individuals biological and mental characteristics, as well as physical surroundings and personal experiences. Related subjects are psychology and psychiatry. It is important to note that there are several universals common among all societies; for example, the basic similarities in human biol- ogy and the existence of two sexes. Another of these is education- either formal or informal or both. Education is necessary to provide the young with the skills and attitudes needed to carry on as adults. So, you might ask, what are the practical applications for such a broad field? The answer is that anthropology helps us plan the future and helps us contribute to the solution of human problems. This newest area of the study of man is applied anthropology. Formerly, anthropology was limited to the academic field. Anthropologists were teachers or museum curators. But for the past several decades large numbers of "anthro" grad- uates have been employed in fields such as urban planning and adminis- tration, health care, and international development. Most important is that although anthropologists have taken up the task of documenting the processes and changes of cultures past and present, they also provide the necessary insights into where the human species is heading. AUDIOSCRIPTS 133Chapter 1 Anthropology: The Study of Human Beings and Their Creations oB. Listening and Notetaking Script The Greek word for "man" is "anthropos" and the word anthropology has been in the English language for centuries. But just what does the word mean? Literally anthropology means "the study of man." How- ever, as British philosopher Alfred NorthWhitehead noted, "It is a well- founded historical generalization that the last thing to be discovered in any science is what the science is really about." And as Paul Bohannan, renowned anthropologist, pointed out a number of years ago, "Each science that deals with people has its own definitions of human. An Economist," he explains, "defines a human as a choice-making animal. Philosophers define man as a rationalizing animal.. .." Anthropology at- tempts to be all-inclusive-the study of human behavior in all places and throughout time. Itspecializes in the description of humanistic, sci- entific, biological, historical, psychological, and social views of humans. Lets review some of the information you just heard to help you with your notetaking. Check your notes and fill in any information you didn t have time to take down the first time you heard it. If you didnt get a chance to write down all that you wanted to write down, did you at least make some notations so that you could review the notes later and complete the missing information. Lets see. The lecturer began with the Greek word for man. Did you get the spelling of anthropos! Its a-n-t-b-t-o-p-o-s. So what is the meaning of anthropology! Literally, it is the study of man. What was the name of the British philosopher! Did you get his full name! Alfred North Whitehead. What was his message about science! He said the last thing to be discovered in any science is what it is really about. Is Paul Bohannan a physical or social anthropologist! Youre correct if you wrote social. Now lets return to the lecture. To paraphrase Barbara Millers statement in her textbook, Cultural Anthropology, the popular impression of anthropology is based mainly on movies and television shows that depict anthropologists as adven- turers and heroes. Some do have adventures and discover treasures in Egyptian tombs and elsewhere, but mostly, their work is less glam- orous and involves repetitive and tedious activities. Until around the middle of the nineteenth century, anthropology was a term used for all humanists. My lecture today explains the fields and branches of anthropology. Were going to begin by stating that anthropology is the study of human behavior in all places and at all times. Western civilization takes credit for the development of anthropol- ogy, which, as a matter of fact, was a relatively late science. Earlier Greek and Roman philosophers were more interested in speculating about the ideal society rather than describing those known to them. What year did Barbara Miller publish Cultural Anthropology? Was it 1899 or 1999! According to her, what is the impression of anthropology based on! How are anthropologists depicted! Prior to 134 APPENDIX Athe 1850s what was the term "anthropology" used for! What is the lecturers definition! Who takes credit for the development of an- thropology! What were the ancient philosophers interested in! Is this information in your notes! Now lets continue. After the onset of the Age of Exploration, which included the dis - covery of the Americas, as wcll as travel to other distant places, the study of non-Western people began in earnest. In modern day, anthro- pology is a recognized social science with two broad fields and several branches or subfields. The two broad fields are physical anthropology and cultural anthropology. Let me give you a brief description of each. Physical anthropology is concerned the development of man as a mammal. Related subjects are anatomy, biology, and paleontology. Physical an- thropologists study the evolution of the human species. One way they do this is by the comparative analysis of fossils-preservcd remnants of once-living creatures and living primates, which include human beings or Homo sapiens. Common fossils are shells, bones, and molds or imprints. These arc found buried in the earth or permanently frozen in glaciers. Living primates are analyzed in order to study the mechan- ics of evolution and genetic differences among human populations. What was the period of travel and discovery ofnewplaces called! Did you write down the phrase: the Age ofExploration! Do you have the descriptions of the two main branches of anthropology! What are the related subjects of physical anthropology! What are fossils! Did you take down three kinds that were mentioned! What was another word formolds! Where are fossils found! Check your notes. Next lets talk about cultural anthropology. This field is the study of learned behavior in human societies. Most cultural anthropologists limit themselves to a few geographic areas, for example, Margaret Mead in Samoa and New Guinea, and Clyde Kluckhohn with the Navajo Indians in the Southwestern United States. I should mention that Kluckhohns work Mirror for Man is considered one of the best introductions to anthropology. Cultural anthropology and the scientific study of human culture will be discussed in more detail in our next lecture. The subfields of cultural anthropology are archaeology, linguistics, and ethnography. Archaeology is the study of different cultures through material sources rather than direct interviews or observations of the group under study. One example of a famous archaeological site discovered in the past century was King Tuts Tomb near Luxor, Egypt, in 1922. Linguistics, as you probably know, is the study of language as communication among humans. Culture is learned and transmitted primarily through language. Ethnography is the systematic description of human societies, mostly based on firsthand fieldwork. Based on ethnographies, anthro- pologists provide ethnologies or explanations of the behavior of different peoples. A second subfield of ethnography is social anthropol- ogy. Social anthropology is concerned with people as social beings. A related subject is, of course, sociology. AUDIOSCRIPTS 135Unit One Chapter 2 Let me also mention briefly psychological anthropology, which deals with human personality and feelings. These are greatly influ- enced by an individuals biological and mental characteristics, as well as physical surroundings and personal experiences. Related subjects are psychology and psychiatry. There were a lot of details in this part of the lecture. Let s back- track a bit. Let me spell the last names of the two anthropologists just mentioned. Margaret Mead-that s M-e-a-d-and Clyde Kluckhohn-K-l-u-c-k-h-o-h-n. Did you write down the three subfields of cultural anthropology that the speaker mentioned! They were archaeology, linguistics, and ethnography. To save time, you can check the spelling later. Note the mention of psychologi- cal anthropology. What is it concerned with! What are the related subjects! Nowlets see what the speaker talks about next. It is important to note that there are several universals common among all societies, for example, the basic similarities in human biol- ogy and the existence of two sexes. Another of these is education- either formal or informal or both. Education is necessary to provide the young with the skills and attitudes needed to carry on as adults. So, you might ask, what are the practical applications for such a broad field? The answer is that anthropology helps us plan the future and helps us contribute to the solution of human problems. This newest area of the study of man is applied anthropology. Formerly, anthropology was limited to the academic field. Anthropologists were teachers or museum curators. But for the past several decades large numbers of "anthro" grad- uates have been employed in fields such as urban planning and adminis- tration, health care, and international development. Most important is that although anthropologists have taken up the task of documenting the processes and changes of cultures past and present, they also provide the necessary insights into where the human species is heading. What were the universals mentioned! What are the practical applications of the field! Where did we mostly find cultural anthropologists in the past! Did you take down all the job areas mentioned! What were they! Right-urban planning, health care, and international development. Finally, according to the lecturer, what valuable insight does the anthropologist provide! Anthropology: The Evolution of Human Endeavor The Concept of Culture: Understanding One Another QA. Orientation Listening Script Let me begin the lecture today by asking, "What exactly is culture?" This question has been approached by anthropologists in many differ- ent ways. Murdock, for example, in Outline of World Cultures, 136 APPENDIX Aproduced what many have called the ultimate laundry list of things cultural by naming 900-odd categories of human behavior. I wont attempt to go into these at this time. Another less lengthy list is the famous "grocery list" of Edward B. Tyler. He wrote, "Culture is that complex whole which includes knowledge, belief, art, morals, custom, and any other capabilities and habits acquired by man as a member of society." But another definition of culture that many find useful is, "the totality of learned, socially transmitted behavior." Obvi- ously this definition leaves out much if we feel obligated to include all the ways of life that have been evolved by people in every society. A particular culture, then, would mean the total shared way of life of a given group. This would include their ways of thinking, acting, and feeling as reflected in their religion, iaw, language, art, and customs, as well as concrete things such as houses, clothing, and tools. Cultural anthropology is the study of cultures-living and dead. In its totality, it includes linguistics, the study of speech forms, archaeology (the study of dead cultures), and ethnology, which is the study of living cul- tures or those that can be observed directly. Why study cultural anthropology? One reason noted by Ruth Bene- dict, another well-known anthropologist, is that the story of humanity from the Stone Age to the present is such a fascinating one of cultural growth. Interestingly, every society has gone through three stages or steps of cultural growth. These are savagery, barbarism, and finally, civilization. The last is, of course, to varying degrees. We are often reminded of another compelling reason to learn about different cultures-to learn and use a foreign language effectively. Most of us realize that just knowing the language of another culture is not enough for meaningful communication. You can ask anyone who has tried to use their high school Spanish inside a Spanish-speaking country. Ned Seelye, in his 1993 book Teaching Culture, lists six skills to nurture and support intercultural communication: Number 1: Cultivate curiosity about another culture and empathy toward its members. Number 2: Recognize that different roles and other social variables such as age, sex, social class, religion, ethnicity, and place of resi- dence affect the way people speak and behave. Number 3: Realize that effective communication requires discov- ering the culturally conditioned images of people when they think, act, and react to the world around them. Number 4: Recognize that situational variables and conventions shape peoples behavior in important ways. Number 5: Understand that people generally act the way they do because they are exercising the options their society allows for satisfying basic physical and psychological needs. And, finally, number 6: Develop the ability to evaluate the truth of a generalization about the target culture and to locate and organize AUDIOSCRIPTS 137Chapter 2 information about the target culture from books, mass media, peo- ple, and personal observations. Culture and society must coexist. Without living together people cannot create a culture or way of life. If a group or society is small, isolated, and stable, it might also share a single culture. For example, think of the Tasaday, allegedly a Stone Age people in the Philippine rain forest, who were discovered by anthropologists back in 1971. A side note is that due to their supposed isolation, they had no weapons or known words in their language for "enemy" or "war." In your read- ing after the lecture, youll learn more about the Tasaday and the con- troversy surrounding them up to the present time. It is important to remember, however, that large societies, such as those in Canada, the United States, India, or Egypt, are multicultural or "pluralist" societies. They also tend to have many subcultures. In the long history of human life, multiculturalism is a fairly recent phe- nomenon. Those of us in multicultural environments must remember that discovering similarities among people from different cultures is as important as identifying differences. For example, in classrooms on just about every university campus in the world, we find students from many different social and ethnic backgrounds. What are some of the "universals" that you and other international students have all experi- enced in your earlier educational life? One common universal is that all cultures use rewards and punish- ments to encourage correct behavior. Another example is that societies withhold certain information from the young. This might include faults in our leaders or sexual taboos. A third universal is the effort by the controlling group in a culture to