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由電火花加工引起的塑料模具鋼表面完整性的一項對比研究
極端的電火花加工(EDM)過程導(dǎo)致了加工表面上一種獨特結(jié)構(gòu)的變化。在研究的過程中,我們對電極材料和液體介質(zhì)類型對塑料模具鋼樣品表面完整性的影響均進行了實驗研究。結(jié)果表明,無論工具電極和絕緣液體如何變化,白層上總可以形成機加工表面。這一層是由分布在保留的滲碳體和馬氏體基體層上形成的樹突結(jié)構(gòu)奧氏體,由于熔融金屬的快速凝固,在碳介質(zhì)液體中使用。高強度裂紋的長度增加引起低脈沖的電流脈沖。此時已發(fā)現(xiàn)電火花加工表面產(chǎn)生裂紋,閉合環(huán)路凹陷與徑向裂紋交叉直立仍然繼續(xù),另一個放電反應(yīng)在附近發(fā)生。白層樣品中加工去離子水混合溶液液體介質(zhì),保留的殘余奧氏體相的數(shù)量有所減少,裂紋強度有所變化。小球體附屬物的數(shù)量在增加,表面碳工具電極材料或介電質(zhì)液體被用于加工中。
1 引言
電火花加工(EDM)提供一個有效地制造工藝,使生產(chǎn)的硬質(zhì)材料構(gòu)件具有復(fù)雜的幾何形態(tài),它很難用于常規(guī)加工航空航天、汽車、工具、模具等行業(yè)。
電火花加工可以描述為利用浸在工作液中的兩極間脈沖放電時產(chǎn)生的電蝕作用,蝕除導(dǎo)電材料的特種加工方法。因此,電能的形式以持續(xù)時間短脈沖指向電極。進行電火花加工時,工具電極和工件分別接脈沖電源的兩極,并浸入工作液中,或?qū)⒐ぷ饕撼淙敕烹婇g隙。當兩極間的間隙達到一定距離時,兩電極上施加的脈沖電壓將工作液擊穿,產(chǎn)生火花放電。眾所周知,在電極表面的腐蝕主要是由熱效應(yīng)的放電引起的,通過火花電極感應(yīng),發(fā)電機制造出強烈的電場。在這一領(lǐng)域,最強的電極發(fā)揮作用。在這兩個電極之間,液體介質(zhì)中的分子和離子極化。當介電強度液的差距超過自然條件限制,則是一種低阻放電通道形成由于電子放射引起的陰極陽極的變化。這種碰撞過程以熱的形式轉(zhuǎn)化動能。熱產(chǎn)生的放電通道預(yù)計高達1017w/平方米左右。因此,甚至可以提高局部電極溫度到20000k。因此,被電離的電極材料發(fā)生溶解、汽化。不被人了解的是在相似的高溫下可以得到如此小的尺寸。等離子體放電通道擴張導(dǎo)致壓力增加,邊界電流密度差距降低。大多情況下,壓力升高可以防止兩電極表面過熱。當脈沖電壓消失時,急劇下降的壓力會引發(fā)劇烈侵蝕過程。過熱的電解質(zhì)液體會使熔巖洞劇烈爆炸。最后,在表面冷卻的瞬間,在液體介質(zhì)中,形狀不規(guī)則的熔融材料或中空球形顆粒汽化。其最終結(jié)果就是在正負電極上都形成小坑,那里其余部分的熔融材料飛濺。應(yīng)用連續(xù)高頻率驅(qū)動一個電極,逐漸侵蝕形成互補的工具電極形成電火花放電。
明確表征電火花加工表面形貌和質(zhì)量的功能是必不可少的。圖(2)(3)試圖定義一個單一的放電隕石坑的形狀和放點條件之間的關(guān)系。它發(fā)現(xiàn),間隙距離引起放電隕石坑大小的多樣性。勞埃德和沃倫表明,陽極隕石坑晶體取向是一個獨立的圓形凹陷的形式和凸起的環(huán)狀在液體分散時間金屬動蕩造成的。此外,他們還發(fā)現(xiàn),這個隕石坑的直徑在一定的條件下是一個常數(shù)。另一方面,
在陰極的隕石坑上并沒有發(fā)現(xiàn)真正的循環(huán),但可以發(fā)現(xiàn)它們晶面的對稱性。格林和阿爾瓦雷斯在不同的電極材料作用下、采用了輪廓成像技術(shù)準確的測量了隕石坑電極的體積。他們的發(fā)現(xiàn)說明了徑向流線附近的邊緣上的隕石坑受高壓的影響。拉達克里西南發(fā)現(xiàn),利用定位技術(shù),不同的材料形成的隕石坑,除了其規(guī)模和深度的不同,外觀則幾乎相同。他們報告說,這是由于隕石坑口熔融材料的沉積。Wong等人用微細電火花加工,其中有一個單一的火花發(fā)生器工作,發(fā)現(xiàn)在較低的能量下,隕石坑的形狀更均勻。更好的界定以較低的能量(<50?PJ)與不規(guī)則的直徑的統(tǒng)一使其達到更高的水平。
由于連續(xù)放電現(xiàn)象,隕石坑隨機疊加。在各種不同的操作類型和實驗條件下,各種不同的實驗結(jié)果和經(jīng)驗?zāi)P偷谋砻婀鉂嵍染话l(fā)表。(7-25)中已觀察到許多過程變量表面光潔度的影響,如峰值電流、電流脈沖的持續(xù)時間、電壓間隙、電極極性、雜物濃度、工具電極、工件、介質(zhì)液體的熱性能。一般來說,電源功能趨勢曲線表明了脈沖能量的增加引起表面粗糙度的增加。大的粗糙度值可以說明大隕石坑具有高能量。經(jīng)過較大的努力,我們使用了超精密加工,已經(jīng)改善了電火花加工的精度和表面粗糙度。材料的去除是在靜電作用力作用下發(fā)生在發(fā)生在金屬表面,短脈沖持續(xù)時間較短。在這種情況下,可能得到小于0.2的表面粗糙度值(RA),還可以得到1鏡面表面。(26、27、28)
在電鏡下,對各種加工面(2、5、10、11、14、22、23、29、30)的研究表明,表面觀察到的可溶性物質(zhì)是滯留氣體逃逸后形成的殘骸。很明顯,流量停止的瞬間表面是冷凍的。然而,根據(jù)凹痕一周的形狀,告訴了我們其突然破裂的同時,壓力也大幅度降低。
另一個特點是電火花加工表面上出現(xiàn)大量的裂紋。工件開裂的出現(xiàn)和熱能的大小決定了加工表面。由于熱應(yīng)力導(dǎo)致電火花加工的表面形成裂紋。他們通常是先在材料的表面形成閉合回路,在冷卻的過程中,受應(yīng)力的影響,殘余內(nèi)應(yīng)力導(dǎo)致融化的材料比未受母材影響的材料更容易產(chǎn)生裂縫。(22、29、32)
早期的對純鐵和鐵合金在放電加工表面的研究表明,對白層的影響遠比對基材的影響大。在合金電極材料白層的表面上發(fā)現(xiàn)了無規(guī)律的飛濺物。(2、4、33、35),從這些可以觀察電極材料如何影響工件表現(xiàn)的質(zhì)量。因此,研究表明,該合金應(yīng)減少一個合適的合金元素來降低殘余應(yīng)力,從而提高表面質(zhì)量。(2、4、35)經(jīng)過淬火可以獲得更高的硬度值。這一層是在機加工的條件下,以水為介質(zhì)觀察的。(2、4、33、34)
勞埃德和沃倫發(fā)現(xiàn),當在石蠟介質(zhì)條件下用石墨電極加工時得到一種枝晶奧氏體和滲碳奧氏體共融的表面結(jié)構(gòu);當在正常條件下用銅電極加工時得到一種滲碳奧氏體表面結(jié)構(gòu)。?歐普 [33]報道在共晶再鑄層上加工熱鍛造鋼。?馬斯瑞林和馬爾基奧尼[36]報道了在碳化物基體上的奧氏體的結(jié)構(gòu)相似,但其指出,不同的電極下白層形態(tài)有所改變;并且碳化物和奧氏體相的比例各不相同。然而,思茅等[24]曾報道在電火花加工時,當采用粉末冶金(PM)的生坯和燒結(jié)的碳化鈦 、碳化鎢、鈷時,白層的硬度增加。他們用輝光放電發(fā)射光譜對改性火花紋輥面的變化進行分析,并觀察發(fā)現(xiàn),當鈦和鎢一起包含在電極電介質(zhì)中時,觀察到粉末冶金電極中含有的鈦和鎢和電火花液分解出的碳一起轉(zhuǎn)移到其表面。同樣,蔡等人[37]報道了加工表面上以復(fù)合電極為基礎(chǔ)的銅和鉻的遷移。?雷貝洛等[14]報道了其表面的碳強度增加了9倍,大于探針分析的散裝物料的強度。加內(nèi)姆等[23]也發(fā)現(xiàn)碳和氫富集在外層。一些研究人員把表層和亞表層含碳量的增加歸因為電解質(zhì)的熱解,而另一些研究人員認為是由于快速從石墨電極吸收了碳而非電解質(zhì)熱解出的碳.湯姆森總結(jié)出,碳是從介質(zhì)中吸收的,而不是從電極中吸收的[29]。近表面硬化現(xiàn)象在奧氏體結(jié)構(gòu)中比在鐵素體結(jié)構(gòu)中更為嚴重,由于在此結(jié)構(gòu)中碳溶解度更低[23]。雷貝洛眾議長等人[14]表明,F(xiàn)e3C在滲碳馬氏體鋼的表面上形成,而Cabanillas等已發(fā)現(xiàn)形成碳化物的兩種不同的方式:第一種是E-碳化物,由奧氏體,馬氏體低于0.5焦耳的能量電火花加工形成[39];第二種是滲碳體,由奧氏體,F(xiàn)e7C3,或Fe5C2純鐵中的烴類介質(zhì)的更高的電火花加工形成。
利姆等人可視化的管理是通過使用非傳統(tǒng)的金相試劑使鑄層顯示各種微觀結(jié)構(gòu)。因此,他們根據(jù)各種意見,根據(jù)重鍍層厚度可分為三類。第一類被認為是20微米至50微米左右,有結(jié)構(gòu)類似的微觀層次重疊;第二類被發(fā)現(xiàn)介于10微米和20微米之間,主要是柱狀性質(zhì)的樹突結(jié)構(gòu)。最后一類被發(fā)現(xiàn)其厚度小于10微米,是最耐腐蝕的。因此,它不能被準確的描述是毋庸置疑的。
在大多數(shù)情況下,在鑄層可以發(fā)現(xiàn)受碳限定的熱影響層。(2、4、33、36、41、42)這層通常是鋼化的微觀結(jié)構(gòu)??梢园l(fā)現(xiàn)這一層的硬度值小于潛在的硬化材料。在大量的研究中可以觀察到一個中間隔層重鑄的鋼化層。(2、4、33、36)通過工具電極發(fā)現(xiàn)這層是存在碳梯度的材料。在嚴峻的加工條件下,這層包括部分熔融層和另外一個區(qū)域,且發(fā)生了固態(tài)擴散。厚度的增加導(dǎo)致熱影響層電荷能量的增加。這層包含了一個高密度二相粒子,比其母材具有更大的尺寸和更全面的碳化物粒子。(11)這層的硬度也略高于鑄層。(40)已經(jīng)報道過塑料變形區(qū)的材料由于是單相材料,且其在電火花加工時不發(fā)生復(fù)雜階段的變化,因此這層會引起潛在的金屬變厚幾十到幾百微米,發(fā)生塑性變形。在機加工條件嚴峻時,脆性材料會出現(xiàn)裂縫,大部分超出此地帶的材料將不會被加工。(4、11、33)
科技進步已經(jīng)促進高強度、高硬度的材料在制造業(yè)中的逐步使用。由于電火花加工有處理復(fù)雜的機械加工硬質(zhì)材料的能力,因此,本工藝加工方法逐步被使用。研究斷裂、疲勞失效、快速加熱和冷卻、表面缺陷對材料強度的影響。這些特性最終決定了機加工件的操作特性。在這項研究中,我們對電極材料和介質(zhì)液體類型對塑料模具鋼表面完整性的影響進行了實驗研究。
2 實驗過程
塑料模具鋼材(DIN1.2738)樣品在電火花加工時應(yīng)去除應(yīng)力,確保良好的條件。先將其加熱到600°C緩慢冷卻一小時。其中一個表面用FURKAN*電火花加工。(FURKAN是土耳其的技術(shù)公司,伊斯坦布爾)。工作面積是10×50毫米。發(fā)電機產(chǎn)生的平均電流在其脈沖為1、2、4、8、16和長度為6、12、25、50、100、200、400、800、1600等。以商業(yè)煤油和去離子水作為電介質(zhì)液體。鋼和石墨被選為工具電極。材料的化學成分如樣品材料表中所示。
表1,組成塑料模具鋼材(質(zhì)量百分數(shù))
JEOL*進行了地形考試。
JEOL*日本電子光學有限公司、東京。
JSM-5600掃描電子顯微鏡(SEM)。樣品用傳統(tǒng)金相技術(shù)提取,可以觀察到熱影響層通常在一個奧林匹斯金相微觀的范圍。此部分加入一種試劑,以便于觀察熱影響區(qū)。顯微硬度測量深度文件由FUTURE-TECH*FM-700公司制作。
奧林匹斯是一個商標*日本奧林匹斯有限公司、東京。
FUTURE-TECH是一個商標*日本FUTURE-TECH有限公司、東京。
用維氏硬度indenter 10,或負載的時間縮進15秒。通過帕特?x射線衍射,利用島津萬能試驗機* XRD – 6000,得出以下數(shù)據(jù)。
*島津萬能試驗機是一個商標,日本島津萬能試驗機有限公司《京都議定書》
3 結(jié)果
A、表面形貌
眾所周知,通過控制電源的設(shè)置功能,使釋放出的能量導(dǎo)致表面粗糙度的變化。峰值電流越高,脈沖持續(xù)時間越長,則表面的粗糙度越大。相反,峰值電流越低,脈沖持續(xù)時間越短,則表面粗糙度越小。因為電極材料的能量和脈沖能量成正比。掃描電子顯微照片(圖1和2)表明,觀察電火花加工表面,重疊隕石坑,碎片球體,由逃逸的再沉積材料的煙囪狀滯留氣體形成可溶性物質(zhì)。
介質(zhì)液體和工具電極表面形貌的影響在文獻中沒有明確規(guī)定。已報道過他只引起表面粗糙度產(chǎn)生微小的變化。類似的操作條件下產(chǎn)生的表面,通過使用不同的液體介質(zhì)和電極材料的組合(圖1和2),顯示了圖形各種不同的特點。改變球狀或不規(guī)則形狀的附屬物的表面特征,被納入隕石坑外緣。銅作為工具電極,去離子水作為液體介質(zhì)(圖1(a))使用時,沒有或很少有附屬物可被觀察到。因此可以改變工具電極材料,或增加石墨等附屬物的數(shù)量(圖1(b))。已發(fā)現(xiàn)表面密集時,使用煤油作為電介質(zhì)液體。然而,在圖2(a)(b)的情況下,在表面地形不斷變化時,工具電極材料的變化并非必不可少。這些結(jié)果準確表明碳來自電介質(zhì)液體或工具電極。
脈沖持續(xù)時間增長,可以極大地提高表面損傷的數(shù)量。尤其是在高脈沖寬度和低電流設(shè)置且使用煤油作為電介質(zhì)液體時,最有可能產(chǎn)生裂紋。在這種情況下,一個明確的裂紋網(wǎng)絡(luò)在800?ps和平均電流為8 A增加兩倍的脈沖電流可以清晰顯示(圖3(a))。這樣一個網(wǎng)絡(luò)里,脈沖持續(xù)的時間變短(圖3(b))。
用水做電解液時,高脈沖寬度時加工狀態(tài)不穩(wěn)定,當采用正常脈沖電流16A,脈沖寬度低于400ps時,加工穩(wěn)定,當采用8A脈沖電流時,脈沖寬度要低于200ps,加工狀態(tài)才穩(wěn)定。在不穩(wěn)定的加工條件下,可視化的深腔(圖4(a)項)以煤油作為液體介質(zhì)(圖3(a)),此時在加工過程中產(chǎn)生電弧。在相似加工條件下?lián)Q做銅電極加工時,會出現(xiàn)一個從穩(wěn)定到不穩(wěn)定加工的過渡型面,在此區(qū)域由不穩(wěn)定放電而產(chǎn)生的深坑會被穩(wěn)定加工時產(chǎn)生的熔融材料部分填平(圖4(b))。
(左)圖1。1-SEM電火花加工塑料模具鋼材表面。Iav = 16、tp = 25 p;介質(zhì)液體:去離子水;電極(a)和(b):銅、石墨。
(右)圖2。2-SEM電火花加工塑料模具鋼材表面。Iav = 16、tp = 25 ps;介質(zhì)液體:煤油;、電極(a)和(b):銅、石墨。
(左)圖3。3-SEM電火花加工塑料模具鋼材表面。電極:石墨; 800 ps;介質(zhì)液體:煤油;1,Iav = 8 ,;2,Iav = 16。
(右)圖4。4-SEM電火花加工塑料模具鋼材。Iav = 8 時,電極:(a)石墨、(b)銅;tp = 800 ps;液體介質(zhì):水。
(左)圖5。5-Cross電火花加工部分塑料模具鋼樣品。介質(zhì)液體:煤油;tp = 400、Iav = 16; 電極(a)和(b):石墨、銅。電極:銅;當Iav = 8 時,電極:石墨;當Iav = 8 a,電極:銅。
(右)圖6。6-Cross電火花加工部分塑料模具鋼樣品。介質(zhì)液體:去離子水;tp = 400 ps、(a)Iav = 16 ;電極:石墨。(b)Iav = 16,電極:銅。(c)Iav = 8 ,電極:石墨。(d)Iav = 8 a,電極:銅。
B、熱影響層
在電火花加工的表面產(chǎn)生熱影響層。在所有情況下,研究發(fā)現(xiàn)脈沖持續(xù)時間最長,白層厚度最高。重疊的隕石坑基地和輪輞在輪輞層較厚的地方形成白色層(圖5)。分析加工過程中的介質(zhì)液體和工具電極,從中發(fā)現(xiàn),白層堆積在隕石坑外緣。當使用石墨作為工具電極和煤油作為電介質(zhì)液體時,形成白色層是顯而易見的。銅作為工具電極使用時,推斷出在此形成的白層數(shù)量略有下降。當水被用來作為電介質(zhì)液體時,白色層的減少是顯而易見的(圖6)。尤其是當使用銅作為工具電極時,白層的數(shù)量最少。但由于高的熱度梯度對熱影響區(qū)有所影響,在大多數(shù)情況下,一個黑暗的熱影響中間層是可見的。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)這層比白層薄得多。
C、硬度深度百分比
我們至少10次測量各個熱影響層。閱讀資料10-G,塑料模具鋼樣品的壓痕時間15秒,在一定的負載下,觀察顯微硬度讀數(shù)的變化(見表二)。在白色層的硬度值比其母材的硬度值更高。位于白層下的熱影響區(qū)域硬度急劇降低(由外至里)直至降低到未受影響的材料硬度值。我們發(fā)現(xiàn)一個有趣的結(jié)果:工具電極和電介質(zhì)液體,會略微受到影響層內(nèi)的硬度變化的影響。
D. x射線衍射模式
塑料模具鋼樣品的X射線衍射圖樣顯示基本上是兩個不同的趨勢(圖7)。當樣品以煤油為介質(zhì)加工時,無論工具電極材料有什么變化,均會形成Fe3C。?Fe3C不能在加工表面用去離子水檢測。因此,可以得出結(jié)論,在表面層中的含碳量的增加可以歸因于液體介質(zhì)的裂解產(chǎn)物,而不是工具電極。以去離子水作為液體介質(zhì)時,殘余奧氏體也對所有樣品的檢測量有一定的影響。
圖7。在衍射模式下電火花加工塑膠模鋼樣品。(a)Iav = 16、tp = 800 。(b)以銅為電極,以煤油為液體介質(zhì)。(c)以石墨為電極,以煤油為液體介質(zhì)。(d)以銅為電極,以去離子水為液體介質(zhì)。 (e)以石墨為電極,以去離子水為液體介質(zhì)。
附表二 顯微鏡下測量硬度的結(jié)果
4 討論結(jié)果
在機加工條件下,我們發(fā)現(xiàn),最外層就是我們熟知的白層。白層表面的厚度是不均勻的。這是由于連續(xù)重疊層電火花作用的結(jié)果。因此,預(yù)計類似的微結(jié)構(gòu)組成的多層結(jié)構(gòu)應(yīng)在白層上出現(xiàn)。?利姆等人[40]在可視化的粗加工條件下,通過有效地試劑,發(fā)現(xiàn)了層狀結(jié)構(gòu)。白層厚度從幾微米開始變化。由于熔化的金屬被驅(qū)逐到現(xiàn)有的白層,隨后凝固,因此白層就在這部分形成。減小脈沖寬度和電流也可以減少白層的厚度,但在較厚的部分可以看見多層結(jié)構(gòu)。對較薄的單層結(jié)構(gòu)進行觀察,該部分主要是柱狀或樹突狀組織。這可能是單層類型,保留了熔融金屬的凝固組織(圖8(a))。熔融金屬顆粒形成球形附屬物,被驅(qū)逐在電火花加工的工件的表面固化。這種附屬物一般可分為兩組。第一組的球形物只會粘結(jié)在白層上。他們呈小球形,與基體在一個或兩個接觸點結(jié)合?;瘜W蝕刻可以輕松的去除這組球形物。仔細觀查發(fā)現(xiàn),在有些情況下,沒有明確的證據(jù)可以檢測這些小球準確的脫落位置[40]。第二組的球形物牢牢地融合再鑄層,并且具有較大的接觸面積圖8(b)。在多層基板加工過程中,工具電極材料和絕緣液體周圍,可以看到一個個球形附屬物。雖然沒有確鑿的證據(jù)表明石墨電極的白色層和熱影響層中有大量德爾碳富集,但球形附屬物數(shù)量的增加是顯而易見的(圖1(b))。顯微圖像表明與電解質(zhì)和電極都有反應(yīng),如果沒有電解質(zhì)或者電極生成碳,工件表面的氣化過程會得到抑制。這表明碳在工具電極、電介質(zhì)液體沸騰的過程中被同化。
塑料模具鋼樣品的X射線衍射圖樣顯示,在使用煤油作為電介質(zhì)液體時在加工表面上形成Fe3C。因此,白層由滲碳體和馬氏體組成,分布在保留的奧氏體基體中。使用去離子水為液體介質(zhì)時,保留的殘余奧氏體相的數(shù)量減少、強度降低。改變電極材料結(jié)果仍然不會改變。據(jù)推測,僅相的數(shù)量可能會有所不同。在放電過程中破獲的烴類介質(zhì)的裂解產(chǎn)物形成滲碳體。顯微硬度測試表明,白層硬度在不同情況下是不同的,因為它由不同的微型元件組成。
在所有情況下,電火花加工塑料模具鋼,熱影響層產(chǎn)生導(dǎo)致白層的變化。我們發(fā)現(xiàn),在最外層區(qū)域白層硬度值較高,然后逐步減少在內(nèi)部部分母材硬度。
大多數(shù)研究人員報道說,在較高的脈沖寬度下,裂縫逐漸增多,能量逐漸增加 [11,32]。根據(jù)他們的說法,在機加工時應(yīng)按比例增加脈沖能量,則更容易裂紋。然而,李和泰[22]聲明,在最小電流脈沖下,這個裂縫密度最大,持續(xù)時間最長。這些結(jié)果證實這一結(jié)論。在同一脈沖下,裂縫在高能級密度下持續(xù)時間最長。如果降低脈沖能量,在閉合環(huán)路裂縫處出現(xiàn)凹陷(圖3(a))。裂縫形成的隕石坑繼續(xù)蔓延時,在附近繼續(xù)產(chǎn)生電火花放電??梢灾赋觯诖怪苯嵌鹊慕稽c處,常常形成裂紋(圖9)。通過區(qū)分附屬物和球狀體也可以區(qū)分樣品。有時在加工表面發(fā)現(xiàn)的小隕石坑大概是由于泡沫崩潰形成的。在這種情況下,可以清晰地看見馬氏體的痕跡(如圖9(b)。在相同的能量下,當脈沖持續(xù)時間減少時,裂縫的數(shù)量也相應(yīng)減少。尤其是在隕石坑外緣,產(chǎn)生一個更高的熱徑向應(yīng)力,徑向裂縫產(chǎn)生(如圖10)。改變工具電極不能改變表面裂紋的結(jié)構(gòu)。已經(jīng)發(fā)現(xiàn)當金屬材料達到熱影響層時,裂縫穿透白層繼續(xù)蔓延。
當石墨被用作工具電極和去離子水被用作電介質(zhì)液體時,在高脈沖條件下,一場激烈的、非同尋常的的開裂在熱影響層產(chǎn)生(圖11)。這種不穩(wěn)定的運行情況常見于工業(yè)應(yīng)用中。在這種情況下,與其他情況相比,其隕石坑更深,且其形狀更不規(guī)則(圖4(a))。裂縫是隨機分布的,通常是在隕石坑口基體上,并擴展到其母材上。當用去離子水做電火花液時產(chǎn)生的這些缺陷與電解液被石墨電極加工時產(chǎn)生的廢物污染有關(guān),污染的增加降低了電火花液的性能并導(dǎo)致加工過程中產(chǎn)生電弧。
(左)圖9-劇烈電火花加工塑料模具鋼材。 (a)放大200倍,(b)放大550倍。介質(zhì):煤油,tp = 1600 ps;Iav = 8。
(右)圖10-劇烈電火花加工塑料模具鋼材。(a)放大200倍,(b)放大550倍。工具電極:銅;介電材料:煤油,tp = 400 ps;Iav = 8。
圖11-邊界裂解塑料模具鋼材。工具電極:石墨;介電材料:去離子水;tp = 1600 ps;Iav = 8。
5 結(jié)論
通過以上實驗可以得出以下結(jié)論。
1、電火花加工時,無論選用任何一種電介質(zhì)液體和工具電極材料,在加工表面上均可形成白層。
2、在烴類電火花液中加工的樣品白層中含有比母材多的碳,是由于放電過程中電火花液熱解的產(chǎn)物所致.因此白層含有滲碳體和馬氏體分布在殘留奧氏體中,由于熔融金屬的快速固化而形成枝晶狀結(jié)構(gòu).
3、加工樣品的白層若以去離子水為液體介質(zhì)時,殘余奧氏體相的數(shù)量會更少,裂紋強度會更低。在這種情況下,白層硬度與母材硬度的增加是馬氏體作用的結(jié)果。
4。雖然目前還沒有確鑿的證據(jù)證明白層的碳富集,從石墨電極的研究來看,在機加工表面球形附屬物的數(shù)量增加了。這表明,不僅是工具電極的碳同化,而且電介質(zhì)液體沸騰的過程也導(dǎo)致碳同化。
5。當另一個放電反應(yīng)發(fā)生在附近時,電火花加工表面上的裂縫按照閉環(huán)方式穿越徑向裂紋繼續(xù)傳播。在高脈沖寬度和低脈沖電流時,開裂強度增加。
嗚 謝
這項研究受中東技術(shù)大學研究基金的支持。作者對材料研究實驗室、埃雷利鋼鐵廠有限公司的設(shè)備支持表示感謝。作者同時感謝來自科尼亞,塞爾庫克大學(肯尼亞,土耳其)機電工程系的Halkaci先生在樣品制備過程中的幫助。
板料金屬塑性成形中過程控制的發(fā)展
在板料金屬成形工序中,壓邊力控制金屬流向模具型腔內(nèi),這對生產(chǎn)一個好零件很重要。過程控制可以用于適應(yīng)以跟蹤被涉及的沖頭力軌道從而達到提高沖件的質(zhì)量和密度的目的。過程控制主要包括過程管理和沖頭力量軌跡設(shè)計。這篇文獻的目的就是介紹一種合理過程控制和最佳的沖頭力量軌跡的設(shè)計和執(zhí)行的系統(tǒng)性方法。這種方法包括板料金屬成形過程的建模,過程管理的設(shè)計和最佳沖頭力量軌跡的確定。U型件塑性成形的實驗結(jié)果顯示合適的過程控制可以用仿真來設(shè)計,一個最佳的沖頭力量軌跡可以通過實驗來分析。被提及的發(fā)展應(yīng)該在板料金屬成形過程中的設(shè)計和執(zhí)行過程控制中有用。
1.介紹
金屬板料沖壓是一個很重要的制造業(yè)工序因為它速度快并且大量生產(chǎn)費用低。例如,飛機機身零件,轉(zhuǎn)矩變化葉輪片零件,燃料水槽零件全部都是用這種方法生產(chǎn)的。一個簡化的沖壓工序如圖1所示?;镜慕Y(jié)構(gòu)包括沖頭和一組壓邊圈包括或者不包括起重臂桿。沖頭拉深板料成形,壓邊圈控制著金屬流入模具型腔內(nèi)。
沖件的質(zhì)量被評定防止出現(xiàn)聚集和最終制件性能上的問題。兩個關(guān)于沖件質(zhì)量的主要問題是可成形性(舉例來說,由于過度壓縮而引起的起皺現(xiàn)象)和空間的正確性(舉例來說,由于彈性恢復(fù)引起的彎曲回彈)。板料金屬成形的主要問題如圖2所示。此外,沖壓過程中的連貫性(待翻譯。。)對接下來大批量產(chǎn)品的集合有很大影響。
新的挑戰(zhàn)來自于對新材料的應(yīng)用。例如,為了減輕汽車的重量(為了提高燃料節(jié)省)制造公司必須選用比較輕的材料(比如鋁)或者高強度合金來代替低碳鋼。盡管如此,這樣的材料沒有低炭剛?cè)菀壮尚尾⑶矣懈嗟幕貜棥?
控制金屬流向模具型腔對零件的質(zhì)量和硬度是至關(guān)重要的,壓邊圈控制著金屬流入模具的型腔。以前的研究已經(jīng)顯示在塑性成形改變壓邊力可以提高制件的質(zhì)量和硬度。值得一提的是機械壓制正在被花樣翻新,用水壓的多點系統(tǒng)提供更多的對塑性工序的控制。這種沖壓技術(shù)使這里介紹的工序控制概念變得更容易。
通過可變的壓邊力的應(yīng)用來控制板料金屬成形工序的策略是工序控制(如圖3)。在這個理論中,一個可測量的變量(如沖壓力)通過操作壓邊力被接下來預(yù)定的軌道控制。這個策略可以生產(chǎn)最佳重量的杯形拉深件不管最初的壓邊力和摩擦條件。其他可測量的過程變量(例如拉深力和摩擦力)也已經(jīng)被發(fā)表。
圖1.沖壓工序示意圖
為了有系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計一個合適的壓邊圈,必須首先分析模型工序分析(圖3中)。大多數(shù)板料金屬成形模型建立在非常復(fù)雜的有限元分析上,因此這些模型不利于壓邊圈的設(shè)計。用來設(shè)計此模型的一種分段的線性模型已經(jīng)發(fā)展。盡管如此,這種模型不能用在閉環(huán)的仿真分析上,因為它不能獲取板料金屬成形工序的典型的非線性的特征。因此,結(jié)果是在模型方面的板料金屬成形控制沒有被足夠的研究,特別是從控制的角度,但是系統(tǒng)證明方法已經(jīng)被很好的發(fā)展。
最普遍的壓邊圈最成部分就是正比例的控制器。盡管如此,控制器參數(shù)被象征性的確定通過實驗和誤差。盡管過程控制已經(jīng)被很好的設(shè)計,它在板料金屬成形上的應(yīng)用還沒有被研究。
在工序控制中被提及的軌道對確保板料金屬成形的質(zhì)量是很重要的。它已經(jīng)被試驗上和數(shù)字上確認。盡管如此,最佳的軌跡已經(jīng)被很好的研究。
關(guān)于工序控制在板料金屬成形上的應(yīng)用的主要結(jié)果包括適當?shù)墓ば蚩刂圃O(shè)計和最佳的軌跡設(shè)計。這篇文獻的目的就是闡述這兩個結(jié)果從而達到在板料金屬成形中系統(tǒng)的設(shè)計和實現(xiàn)工序控制。
(a) 裂紋 (b)皺紋
(c)彎曲回彈
圖2 板料金屬成形中的缺陷
2.板料金屬成形的工序控制
2.1 實驗工具
控制過程實驗在雙動水壓成形模擬器裝備上用一個PID數(shù)字控制器(看圖4)操作。沖頭的力量負荷是680KN,底座符合是700KN。數(shù)字控制器允許壓邊力跟蹤機器控制塊實現(xiàn)的預(yù)定軌跡 如圖3。
2.2控制過程的執(zhí)行
在成形模擬器上控制過程的執(zhí)行如圖5所示。額外的成分是“DAQ”塊,這是在儀表上獲取的數(shù)據(jù)。它從數(shù)字控制器上(外面反饋的結(jié)果圖3中)獲得數(shù)據(jù),并且傳回計算出的壓邊力到數(shù)字控制器上(過程控制器輸出的結(jié)果在圖3中)?!肮こ獭眽K和“DAQ”塊是“工序控制器”塊的結(jié)果如圖3。“WSCI”塊是最初的工作站通信接口。
圖3 板料金屬成形的工序控制
圖4 成形模擬器
2.3 板料金屬成形中控制過程的影響
2.3.1 部分硬度通過過程控制
近來,機器和工序?qū)形件的控制比較證明了過程控制比機器控制更優(yōu)越,圖6顯示了機器控制和過程控制相關(guān)的跟蹤誤差在干燥和潤滑的條件下。結(jié)果顯示過程控制可維持一樣的沖力軌跡在不同的潤滑條件下,但是機器控制不可以。表1顯示了平均標準的高度對于事件來說在圖6中。測試顯示控制工序在高度上的一致性,盡管潤滑方面的改變。所以,在高度上一致性和沖壓力軌跡的一致性是相關(guān)的。
2.3.2 沖壓軌道的重要性
沖壓軌道的重要性可以通過比較不同軌跡下的高度顯示出來。圖7列出了2種實驗得出的沖壓力軌跡。表2顯示了在2種不同的軌跡下測出的高度。曲線b可以生產(chǎn)出較好的零件,因為測量的高度接近預(yù)想的高度(50 mm)。
2.4 板料金屬成形中控制工序的設(shè)計
根據(jù)上面實驗結(jié)果,兩個很重要的需要考慮的事項出現(xiàn)了:
● 跟蹤工序控制性能的評估。
● 相關(guān)沖壓力軌跡的選擇。
這兩個需要考慮的事項在接下來的文字中會被說明。
圖5 控制工序的執(zhí)行
表1 表2
圖6 有關(guān)聯(lián)的跟蹤誤差
圖7 參考實驗的沖壓力軌跡
3.板料金屬成形建模
建立一個板料金屬成形工序的模型包括液壓控制式單一的桶形約束件為了工序控制器的設(shè)計,這是一個單進單出的系統(tǒng)。這在結(jié)構(gòu)圖8中表達了出來。這個工序模型是一個非線性的動態(tài)的模型。影響因素,主要是潤滑問題,也被表示了出來。這個模型也已經(jīng)被成功的用在了U形件的成形工序的模擬。圖9展示了對不同的持續(xù)變化的壓邊力曲線的實驗和模擬的結(jié)果對比。
4.工序控制器的設(shè)計
根據(jù)以往的經(jīng)驗?zāi)P停ば蚩刂破飨到y(tǒng)的學習可以在執(zhí)行之前被行為和數(shù)字分析。對于SISO系統(tǒng),一個成比例的正的完整的控制器(PIF)在模擬器成形上已經(jīng)被研究并成功的實現(xiàn)了。控制器的圖標在圖10中顯示出來。一個線性的模型可以被用來設(shè)計控制器增量,這個線性模型可以被一個非線性的模型所代替如圖8所示從而利用控制器增量評估循環(huán)系統(tǒng)的軌跡。
圖11顯示了用PIE工序控制器的仿真結(jié)果和第一個非線性的模型。圖11(a)顯示了用PIE工序控制器壓邊力自動產(chǎn)生。圖11(b)顯示了涉及到的沖壓力的軌跡。好的追中軌跡建立在仿真結(jié)果的基礎(chǔ)上。
用相同的PIE工序控制器和相同的沖壓力軌跡所得到的試驗結(jié)果在圖12中顯示。盡管在沖壓力軌跡中有變量,沖壓力軌跡還是相似的。這表明工序控制器工作良好。
圖8 板料金屬成形的模型 圖10 PI E控的圖表
圖9 對于不同的可變的壓邊力的軌跡試驗預(yù)知的沖壓力軌跡
圖11用PIE控制器和一個非線性的模型的的模擬仿真結(jié)果
圖12 用相同的PIE控制器和沖壓力軌跡得到的試驗結(jié)果
5.最佳的沖壓力軌跡設(shè)計
一個獲得最佳的沖壓力軌跡的方法是利用設(shè)計最優(yōu)化方法。依靠一個良好的工序控制器,圖3可以被簡化為如圖13所示。
在這種情況下,有戳的形狀可以通過涉及到的沖壓力軌跡被完整的確定或者是通過沖壓力軌跡得到相同的形狀。
一個數(shù)學表達式可以用來描述他們之間的關(guān)聯(lián)在圖13。
S=P(Fp) (1)
獲得預(yù)期的形狀Sd的理想的沖壓力軌跡Fp可以通過解決下邊的等式來得到。
Fp=arg minE(P(Fp),Sd) (2)
在這個等式中,F(xiàn)p是理想的沖壓力軌跡,D表示安全的范圍沒有裂紋和皺紋,E表現(xiàn)出了P(Fp)和Sd之間的區(qū)別。
獲得最佳化的Fp依然是很困難的。挑戰(zhàn)是:
1. 找出可以給出沖壓力軌跡的機器P來生產(chǎn)形狀零件。
2. 找出定義安全沖壓力軌跡的區(qū)域D。
既然板料金屬成形通用的數(shù)學建模是用有限元法,那就沒有對P和D的簡單表達。
圖13 理想工序控制器的壓力
通過確定參數(shù)解決的程序和試驗設(shè)計如下所示:
1.確定Fp的參數(shù)并且Fp的S參量是個變量,S的參數(shù)是一個可可變的響應(yīng)。
2.鑒別設(shè)計和響應(yīng)變量的經(jīng)驗聯(lián)系。
3.在經(jīng)驗聯(lián)系的基礎(chǔ)上找出理想的可變設(shè)計。理想的沖壓力軌跡要符合理想的變量設(shè)計。
重要的復(fù)合設(shè)計可以用來經(jīng)驗設(shè)計以適合再加工的模型。表面響應(yīng)方法也可以用來找出理想的設(shè)計變量。
在工序控制器上沖壓力軌跡的影響是它的平滑度。理想的沖壓力軌跡越平滑,工序控制器越容易設(shè)計。Fp和S的參數(shù)可以通過連續(xù)擴充用直角功能來實現(xiàn)。沖壓力軌跡的預(yù)想平滑度可以通過直接功能的平滑度來確定。
上面的一個程序是連續(xù)的,下面的結(jié)果來自于對U型件的程序二次應(yīng)用。在這種情況下,響應(yīng)變量是U型件的高度誤差,也就是預(yù)想的高度減去測量的高度。沖壓力用以下參數(shù)表示:
在這個式子中a1被設(shè)計成變量,φ表示第i個的多項式。
編碼設(shè)計變量常在試驗設(shè)計中應(yīng)用,編碼設(shè)計變量x1是:
在這個式子中a10是設(shè)計區(qū)域的中心,λ是依靠比較決定的因素。在這種情況下a10=51.69 λ=0.025。
在試驗中設(shè)計沖壓力軌跡符合x1=4,2,1,0,-1,-2,-4這在圖14(a)中顯示。高度誤差在圖14(b)中顯示。當有裂紋產(chǎn)生時,U型件高度被認為時失敗的高度。理想的Fp在圖14(a)中符合適合響應(yīng)表面圖14(b)的最小值。
從物理學角度來看,在這種情況下真正適宜的時邊界的適宜。因此,適合的響應(yīng)表面不能準確的預(yù)知最適宜的邊界。盡管如此,事實是在統(tǒng)計上它是一個好模型并且表明最小部分的存在。
圖14 (a)設(shè)計沖壓力軌跡 (b)測量的高度誤差和適合的響應(yīng)表面
6.概要和結(jié)論
工序控制器已經(jīng)被介紹用來提高零件的質(zhì)量和連接性。主要的問題例如工序控制器和理想的沖壓力軌跡設(shè)計已經(jīng)有人從事研究。在U型件成形中,接近工序控制的體系被介紹。擁有好的跟蹤性能和理想的沖壓力軌跡的工序控制器已經(jīng)發(fā)展起來。未來的工作包括高的沖壓速度在工序控制器上的影響和對于復(fù)雜零件系統(tǒng)方法的應(yīng)用。
感 謝
作者非常感謝Ford Motor公司技術(shù)上和財政上的支持。
畢業(yè)設(shè)計任務(wù)書
題 目: 電器開關(guān)過電片級進模的設(shè)計
一、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(論文)的內(nèi)容
本設(shè)計要求學生以工程實際零件——電器開關(guān)過電片級進模的設(shè)計作為設(shè)計對象,旨在培養(yǎng)學生嚴謹?shù)姆治鼋鉀Q問題的能力和綜合運用專業(yè)基礎(chǔ)知識進行實際設(shè)計的能力。需要學生充分運用所學的模具知識、零件設(shè)計、制圖、工藝、公差與技術(shù)測量等機械專業(yè)知識進行模具結(jié)構(gòu)的方案設(shè)計、零件的結(jié)構(gòu)尺寸設(shè)計計算等。
1、查閱資料,進行企業(yè)調(diào)研,了解目前主流的沖壓機床的類型與特點,熟悉現(xiàn)有的典型沖壓級進模具設(shè)計的結(jié)構(gòu)與工作原理,做好設(shè)計前的準備工作。
2、根據(jù)給定的零件的結(jié)構(gòu)特點以及尺寸參數(shù),提出模具的設(shè)計方案(兩種及兩種以上),進行比較后選出最佳方案進行設(shè)計,并選擇適當?shù)臋C床;
3、對模具工作部分尺寸及公差進行設(shè)計計算、并選擇合理的零件材料;
4、運用Pro/E、SolidWorks等CAD工具進行輔助設(shè)計,完成模具整體結(jié)構(gòu)
的設(shè)計,繪制所設(shè)計模具的零件圖、裝配圖。
5、總結(jié)設(shè)計數(shù)據(jù),整理設(shè)計思路,編寫設(shè)計說明書。
二、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(論文)的要求與數(shù)據(jù)
1、根據(jù)下圖所示的電器開關(guān)過電片零件的結(jié)構(gòu)特點及尺寸完成一款級進模具的設(shè)計工作,零件的材料為:H68黃銅,0.5mm;
2、設(shè)計相應(yīng)的模具及其主要的零部件。
3、采用CAD設(shè)計軟件(如:Pro/E、SolidWorks、AutoCAD等)對模具進行實體建模、繪制模具的裝配圖與零件圖。
4、編寫設(shè)計說明書。
三、畢業(yè)設(shè)計(論文)應(yīng)完成的工作
1、完成二萬字左右的畢業(yè)設(shè)計說明書(論文),在畢業(yè)設(shè)計說明書(論文)中必須包括詳細的300-500個單詞的英文摘要;對模具零件進行必要設(shè)計計算、對于有標準規(guī)定的零部件,必須嚴格按照標準要求進行選擇或設(shè)計。
2、獨立完成與課題相關(guān),不少于四萬字符的指定英文資料翻譯(附英文原文),要求排版整齊,無明顯語法、字詞的錯誤;
3、繪制出所設(shè)計模具的零件圖和裝配圖,要求折算到A0圖紙3張以上,其中必須包含兩張A3以上的計算機繪圖圖紙,要求圖形繪制符合國家標準,方便讀圖,重要零件的關(guān)鍵尺寸和公差要標注完整正確,并配注合理的技術(shù)要求。
四、應(yīng)收集的資料及主要參考文獻
[1] 模具設(shè)計與制造技術(shù)教育叢書編委會.模具結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計.北京:機械工業(yè)出版社,2004.
[2] 楊占堯,白柳.塑料模具典型結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計實例. 北京:化學工業(yè)出版社,2009.
[3] 宋滿倉等.注塑模具設(shè)計與制造實戰(zhàn)[M].北京:機械工業(yè)出版社,2003.
[4] 劉航. 模具技術(shù)經(jīng)濟分析[M]. 北京:機械工業(yè)出版社,2002.
[5] 傅建等.模具制造工藝學[M]. 北京:機械工業(yè)出版社,2004.
[6] 馮愛新.塑料模具工程師手冊.北京:機械工業(yè)出版社,2009.
[7] 張國強.注塑模設(shè)計與生產(chǎn)應(yīng)用[M] . 北京:化學工業(yè)出版社,2005.
[8] 劉文, 王國輝, 譚建波.SolidWorks模具設(shè)計入門、技巧與實例[M].北京:化學工業(yè)出版社,2010.
[9] Chen,Y.-M. Computer-aided integrated design for injection molding.Intelligent Processing and Manufacturing of Materials, 1999.
[10] Yan, L. An Intelligent Knowledge-based Plastic Injection Mold Design System[J]. Annual Technical Conference - ANTEC, Conference Proceedings, v 3, 2003, p 3514-3518.
五、試驗、測試、試制加工所需主要儀器設(shè)備及條件
計算機一臺,并裝有CAD設(shè)計軟件(AutoCAD,CAXA,UG,Pro/E Solidworks)等。
A Comparative Study on the Surface Integrity of Plastic Mold Steel due to Electric Discharge Machining
BüLENT EKMEKCI, OKTAY ELKOCA, and ABDULKADIR ERDEN
The violent nature of the electric discharge machining (EDM) process leads to a unique structure on the surface of a machined part. In this study, the influence of electrode material and type of dielectric liquid on the surface integrity of plastic mold steel samples is investigated. The results have shown that regardless of the tool electrode and the dielectric liquid, the white layer is formed on machined surfaces. This layer is composed of cementite (Fe3C) and martensite distributed in retained austenite matrix form- ing dendritic structures, due to rapid solidification of the molten metal, if carbon-based dielectric liq- uid is used. The intensity of cracking increases at high pulse durations and low pulse currents. Cracks on the EDM surfaces have been found to follow the pitting arrangements with closed loops and to cross perpendicularly with radial cracks and continue to propagate when another discharge takes place in the neighborhood. The amount of retained austenite phase and the intensity of microcracks have found to be much less in the white layer of the samples machined in de-ionized water dielectric liquid. The number of globule appendages attached to the surface increased when a carbon-based tool electrode material or a dielectric liquid was used during machining.
I. INTRODUCTION
ELECTRIC discharge machining (EDM) provides an effec- tive manufacturing technique that enables the production of parts made of hard materials with complicated geometry that are difficult to produce by conventional machining processes. The ability to control the process parameters to achieve the required dimensional accuracy and surface finish has placed this machining operation in a prominent position in industrial applications. The absorbing interest in EDM has resulted in great improvements in its technology, and it has become an important nontraditional machining process, widely used in aerospace, automotive, tool, and die industries.
Electric discharge machining can be described as a process for eroding and removing material by transient action of elec- tric sparks on electrically conductive materials immersed in a dielectric liquid and separated by a small (~μm) gap. Thus, electrical energy in the form of short duration impulses with a desired shape is supplied to the electrodes. The required energy is usually in the form of rectangular pulses and can be generated by using spark generators designed for this pur- pose. When such a voltage pulse is applied to the electrodes, an electric spark discharge occurs within the interelectrode gap. It is well known that erosion on the electrode surfaces is mainly due to the thermal effect of an electric discharge. The charge induced on electrodes by a spark generator cre- ates a strong electric field. This field is strongest where the electrodes are closest to each other. Molecules and ions of dielectric fluid are polarized and oriented between these two peaks. When the dielectric strength of the liquid in the gap
BüLENT EKMEKCI, Assistant Professor, is with the Mechanical Engi- neering Department, Zonguldak Karaelmas University, 67100 Incivez/ Zonguldak, Turkey. OKTAY ELKOCA, Research Engineer, is with the Research and Development Center, Eregli Iron and Steel Work Co., 67330 Krd. Eregli/Zonguldak, Turkey. ABDULKADIR ERDEN, Professor, is with the Manufacturing Engineering Department, Atilim University, 06836 Incek/ Ankara, Turkey.
Manuscript submitted March 4, 2004.
exceeds a natural limit, a low resistance discharge channel is formed due to the electron avalanche striking the anode and cathode. This collision process transforms kinetic energy in the form of heat and pressure. The amount of heat generated within the discharge channel is predicted to be as high as 1017 W/m2 and, thus, could raise electrode temperatures locally up to 20,000 K even for short pulse durations.[1] Therefore, melting, vaporization, and even ionization of the electrode materials occur at the point where the discharge takes place. No machin- ing process is known where similar high temperatures can be obtained in such small dimensions. The pressure increase in the plasma channel forces expansion discharge channel bound- aries and decreases the current density across the interelectrode gap. Most of the time, the pressure increase is so high that it prevents evaporation of superheated material on both electrode surfaces. When the pulse voltage ceases, a sharp decrease in the channel pressure triggers a violent erosion process. The superheated molten cavities explode violently into the dielectric liquid. Finally, the surfaces cool instantaneously, where all vaporized and a fraction of melted material in the form of irregularly shaped or hollow spherical particles is flushed away by dielectric liquid. The net result is a tiny crater on both sur- faces of the electrodes, where the remaining part of the melted material has splashed on it. Applying consecutive spark dis- charges with high frequencies and driving one electrode toward the other erode the work piece gradually in a form complemen- tary to that of the tool electrode.
A clear characterization of electrodischarge machined surface topography is essential to predict the quality and func- tional behavior of surfaces.[2] Saito[3] tried to define the relation between the shape of a single discharge crater and the dis- charge conditions. He found that the interelectrode gap dis- tance causes the diversity of the size of crater made by the discharge. Lloyd and Warren[4] have shown that the anode craters take the form of a circular depression independent of crystal orientation and characterized by a raised circumfer- ential lip resulting from the upheaval of metal during the liquid dispersion time. In addition, they found that the crater diameter is approximately constant for the same spark condition. The
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cathode craters, on the other hand, were not found to be truly circular but tend to reflect the symmetry of the crystal faces on which they occur. Greene and Alvarez[5] used a profilometer imaging technique to accurately measure the volume of the electrode craters on different electrode materials produced by EDM. They showed the effects of high pressure generated during sparking on craters with illustrating radial flow lines near the rim. Radhakrishnan and Achyutha[6] have found, by using the relocation technique, that the general appearance of the craters formed is almost the same for different materials, except for their size and depth. They reported a well-defined ridge and considered that this was due to the deposition of the molten material from the crater. Wong et al.[7] worked on a micro EDM, which has a single spark generator, and found that the shapes of the craters are more uniform with a better defined rim at lower energies (?50 μJ) in contrast to irregular diameters at higher levels.
A practical EDM surface is a random superposition of craters formed by the discrete removal of metal due to con- secutive discharges. Various experimental results and empir- ical models of surface finish for different operation types and conditions have been published.[7–25] It has been observed that there are many process variables that effect the surface finish such as peak current, duration of current pulse, open voltage gap, electrode polarity, debris concentration, thermal properties of the tool electrode, work piece, and dielectric liquid. Generally, the power functional trend of curves, rep- resenting an increase in surface roughness with respect to increased pulse energy, was presented. Large roughness val- ues can be explained by the generation of large craters due to high energy levels. A great deal of effort has been made to improve EDM accuracy and surface roughness when using this process as ultra precision machining. The material removal is due to electrostatic force acting on the metal sur- face when short pulse duration is applied. In this case, sur- face roughness values (Ra) less than 0.2 μm are possible and a mirrorlike surface can be obtained.[26,27,28]
Studies on various machined surfaces with electron micro- scopy[2,5,10,11,14,22,23,29,30] showed that the surface is observed with globules of debris and chimneys formed by entrapped gases escaping from the redeposited material. Evidently, the surface is frozen, virtually instantaneously, when the discharge ceases. However, the shapes of the pockmarks, and partic- ularly their rims, are indicative of their sudden and simulta- neous rupture, coinciding with the sharp decrease in pressure as the discharge is cut off.
Another feature on electrical discharge machined surfaces is the abundance of microcracks. The amount of thermal energy created and the conductivity of the work piece deter- mine the cracking behavior of the machined surface. Cracks formed due to thermal stresses in a single discharge tend to follow the pitting arrangements created in the surface by EDM. They normally form closed loops, instead of crossing the material’s surface.[31] Residual stresses are generated since the melted material contracts more than the unaffected parent material during the cooling process, and cracks are developed when the stress in the surface exceeds the mate- rial’s fracture strength[22,29,32]
Earlier studies on electric discharge machined surfaces on pure iron and ferrous alloys revealed a nonetchable white cov- ering layer, which is far harder than the base material. Irregu- lar signs of splashing and alloying effect from the electrode
material were found on the surface of the white layer.[2,4,33–35] This observation gives a sense of how the electrode material affects the work piece surface quality. So, it was considered that this alloying effect could be used to enhance the surface quality, such as by reducing residual stresses by a suitable source of alloying element.[2,4,35] The hardness value was found to be high when compared with the hardness value obtain- able by quenching.[4] This layer was observed under all machining conditions, including when water was used as the dielectric material.[2,4,33,34]
Lloyd and Warren[4] obtained a fused outer zone consist- ing of dendritic austenite and a cementite-austenite eutectic (ledeburite structure of a hypoeutectic white cast iron), when machining with a graphite electrode and in paraffin dielectric under severe conditions, or a fully austenitic surface followed by an austenite-cementite matrix, when machining with a copper electrode under less severe conditions. Optiz[33] reported a hypereutectic recast layer in hot forging steel. Massarelli and Marchionni[36] reported a similar structure of carbides in an austenite matrix, but stated that different elec- trodes do not change the morphology of the white layer; only the ratio of the carbide and the austenite phases varies. However, Simao et al.[24] have reported an increase in white layer hardness when employing powder metallurgy (PM) green compact and sintered TiC/WC/Co electrodes during electric discharge texturing (EDT). They used glow discharge optical emission spectroscopy (GDOES) to analyze surface enrichment/depletion of the modified/alloyed EDT roll sur- faces, and observed that Ti and W contained in the PM elec- trodes together with C decomposed from the dielectric fluid during sparking were transferred to the AISI D2 roll surface. Similarly, Tsai et al.[37] have reported Cu and Cr migration to the machined surface from Cr/Cu based composite elec- trodes. Rebelo et al.[14] reported a severe increase in carbon intensity of the surface as 9 times greater at the surface than the bulk material by microprobe analysis. Ghanem et al.[23] also detected enrichment in carbon and hydrogen in the outer layer by GDOES depth profiling. An increase in carbon content in the surface and subsurface layers has been attributed by most workers to the pyrolysis of the dielectric, but others have suggested that carbon is assimilated more rapidly from graphite electrodes than from carbonaceous dielectric. Thomson[29] has concluded that carbon was absorbed from the dielectric rather than from the electrode. The near-surface hardening is more important in the austenitic structure than in the ferritic structure due to the solubility of carbon in the fcc structure.[23] Rebelo et al.[14] and Kruth et al.[38] have shown that Fe3C cementite was formed on the surface of martensitic steels, whereas Cabanillas et al.[39] have found two different regimes of carbide formation: s-carbide, austenite, and martensite for sparks of energy below 0.5 J; and cementite, austenite, and traces of marten- site, Fe7C3, or Fe5C2 for higher spark energies on the pure iron in hydrocarbon dielectrics.
Lim et al.[40] managed to visualize the recast layer by using unconventional metallographic reagents and showed a variety of microstructures; as a result, they categorized these observations into three main groups according to recast layer thickness. The first type was found to be around 20 to 50 μm and has a multiplayer structure made up of over- lapping layers of similar microstructures. The second type was found to range between 10 and 20 μm and is largely
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columnar and dendritic in nature. The last type was found to have a thickness less than 10 μm and to be fairly resis- tant to etching. Thus, it could not be described and is named as featureless.
In most cases, a thermally affected layer was found beneath the recast layer.[2,4,33,36,41,42] It is partly affected by carbon drawn by the dielectric. This layer generally has a tempered microstructure. The hardness value of this layer is often found to be less than that of the underlying hardened material. In a number of studies, an intermediate layer between the recast and the tempered layers has also been observed.[2,4,33,36] This layer was found to exhibit a carbon gradient and contami- nation of materials from the tool electrode. It is possible that this layer includes part of the melted layer plus a region beyond which diffusion has occurred in solid state under
Table I. Composition of the Plastic Mold Steel (Weight Percent)
Material C Cr Mn Mo Ni Si DIN 1.2738 0.38 2.0 1.5 0.2 1.1 0.30
Topographic examinations were performed with a JEOL*
*JEOL is a trademark of Japan Electron Optics Ltd., Tokyo.
JSM-5600 Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM). Samples were prepared using conventional metallographic techniques on cross sections, in which thermally affected layers can be observed normally with an Olympus* metallographic micro-
severe machining condition. The thickness of the thermally
affected layer increases proportionally with respect to dis- charge energy. This layer contains a high density of second- phase particles, which are larger in size and more rounded than the carbide particles in the parent material.[11] The hard- ness of this layer is found to be comparable to or, sometimes, slightly higher than that of the recast layer.[40] A zone of plas- tically deformed material has been reported[41] for single-phase materials, which do not undergo complex phase transforma- tions during EDM. This plastically deformed layer has been found to be from a few tens to a few hundred micrometers in
*OLYMPUS is a trademark of Japan Olympus Co., Tokyo.
scope. These sections were etched with nital reagent in order to reveal thermally affected zones. Microhardness depth pro- file measurements were made on a Future-Tech* FM-700
*Future-Tech is a trademark of Japan Future-Tech Co., Tokyo.
hardness tester using a Vickers indenter with a load of 10 g and an indentation time of 15 seconds. X-ray diffraction pat- terns were obtained with a Shimadzu* XRD-6000. Data were
thickness in the underlying metal. Cleavage and grain bound-
ary cracks, penetrating into the underlying material, have been observed in brittle materials under severe machining conditions.[4,11,33] The bulk of the material beyond these zones remains unaffected by machining.
Technological advances have led to an increase in the usage of high-strength, high-hardness materials in manufacturing industries. Thus, the use of this process has increased in recent years since it has the capability of machining hard materials with complicated forms as fine slots and microholes. How- ever, fracture and fatigue failures generally nucleate at or near the surface of the component, and the frequency of surface defects reduces the strength of the material due to the rapid heating and cooling effects induced by the machining process. These properties determine the resultant operational behavior of the machined parts. In this study, the influence of electrode material and type of dielectric liquid on the surface integrity of plastic mold steel samples is investigated.
II. EXPERIMENTAL PROCEDURE
Plastic mold steel (DIN 1.2738) samples were stress relieved prior to EDM to ensure stress-free condition. They were heated to 600 °C for 1 hour and cooled slowly. One of the surfaces was electric discharge machined with a FURKAN* EDM 25 industrial machine on a rectangular
*FURKAN is a trademark of Turkish Furkan Technologies Co., Istanbul.
working area of 10 × 50 mm. The generator produced rectan- gular pulses at average currents of Iav = 1, 2, 4, 8, and 16 A
and at durations tp = 6, 12, 25, 50, 100, 200, 400, 800, and 1600 μs. Commercial kerosene and deionized water were used as the dielectric liquids. Copper and graphite were selected as the tool electrodes. The chemical composition of the sample material is given in Table I.
*SHIMADZU is a trademark of Japan Shimadzu Co., Kyoto.
collected using Cu Ka radiation (h = 1.5405) in the range 10 ? 20 ? 120. The phases were identified from searches in the JPDS (Joint Committee on Powder Diffraction Stan- dards) database.
III. RESULTS
A. Surface Topography
It is well known that the surface roughness is a function of released energy, which is controlled by power supply set- tings. High peak current and long pulse duration produce a rough surface. Conversely, it is also true that lower peak current and pulse duration produce a finer surface, since each pulse removes a small quantity of material proportional to the energy of the pulse from the electrode. Scanning elec- tron micrographs (Figures 1 and 2) show that an electric dis- charge machined surface observed with overlapping craters, globules of debris, and chimneys formed by entrapped gases escaping from the redeposited material.
The effect of dielectric liquid and tool electrode on sur- face topography is not clearly stated in the literature. Only a small variation in surface roughness has been reported. Surfaces produced under similar operating conditions by using different dielectric liquid and toll electrode material combinations (Figures 1 and 2) have shown that the topo- graphical features of the surfaces change with respect to the number of globular or irregularly shaped appendages that are attached to the crater rims. No or few appendages could be observed when copper is used as the tool electrode and deionized water as the dielectric liquid (Figure 1(a)). Chang- ing the tool electrode material with graphite resulted in an increased number of such appendages (Figure 1(b)). The
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(a)
(b)
Fig. 1—SEM pictures of electric discharge machined plastic mold steel surfaces, Iav = 16 A, tp = 25 μs. Dielectric liquid: deionized water, electrode:
(a) copper and (b) graphite.
surface has been found to be densely infiltrated with such features when