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夾具夾緊力的優(yōu)化及對(duì)工件定位精度的影響
B.Li 和 S.N.Mellkote
布什伍德拉夫機(jī)械工程學(xué)院,佐治亞理工學(xué)院,格魯吉亞,美國(guó)研究所
由于夾緊和加工,在工件和夾具的接觸部位會(huì)產(chǎn)生局部彈性變形,使工件尺寸發(fā)生變化,進(jìn)而影響工件的最終加工質(zhì)量。這種效應(yīng)可通過(guò)最小化夾具設(shè)計(jì)優(yōu)化,夾緊力是一個(gè)重要的設(shè)計(jì)變量,可以得到優(yōu)化,以減少工件的位移。本文提出了一種確定多夾緊夾具受到準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)加工部位的最佳夾緊力的新方法。該方法采用彈性接觸力學(xué)模型代表夾具與工件接觸,并涉及制定和解決方案的多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化模型的約束。夾緊力的最優(yōu)化對(duì)工件定位精度的影響通過(guò)3-2-1式銑夾具的例子進(jìn)行了分析。
關(guān)鍵詞:彈性 接觸 模型 夾具 夾緊力 優(yōu)化
前言
定位和夾緊的工件加工中的兩個(gè)關(guān)鍵因素。要實(shí)現(xiàn)夾具的這些功能,需將工件定位到一個(gè)合適的基準(zhǔn)上并夾緊,采用的夾緊力必須足夠大,以抑制工件在加工過(guò)程中產(chǎn)生的移動(dòng)。然而,過(guò)度的夾緊力可誘導(dǎo)工件產(chǎn)生更大的彈性變形 ,這會(huì)影響它的位置精度,并反過(guò)來(lái)影響零件質(zhì)量。所以有必要確定最佳夾緊力,來(lái)減小由于彈性變形對(duì)工件的定位誤差,同時(shí)滿(mǎn)足加工的要求。在夾具分析和綜合領(lǐng)域上的研究人員使用了有限元模型的方法或剛體模型的方法。大量的工作都以有限元方法為基礎(chǔ)被報(bào)道[參考文獻(xiàn)1-8]。隨著得墨忒耳[8],這種方法的限制是需要較大的模型和計(jì)算成本。同時(shí),多數(shù)的有限元基礎(chǔ)研究人員一直重點(diǎn)關(guān)注的夾具布局優(yōu)化和夾緊力的優(yōu)化還沒(méi)有得到充分討論,也有少數(shù)的研究人員通過(guò)對(duì)剛性模型[9-11]對(duì)夾緊力進(jìn)行了優(yōu)化,剛型模型幾乎被近似為一個(gè)規(guī)則完整的形狀。得墨忒耳[12,13]用螺釘理論解決的最低夾緊力,總的問(wèn)題是制定一個(gè)線(xiàn)性規(guī)劃,其目的是盡量減少在每個(gè)定位點(diǎn)調(diào)整夾緊力強(qiáng)度的法線(xiàn)接觸力。接觸摩擦力的影響被忽視,因?yàn)樗^法線(xiàn)接觸力相對(duì)較小,由于這種方法是基于剛體假設(shè),獨(dú)特的三維夾具可以處理超過(guò)6個(gè)自由度的裝夾,復(fù)和倪[14]也提出迭代搜索方法,通過(guò)假設(shè)已知摩擦力的方向來(lái)推導(dǎo)計(jì)算最小夾緊力,該剛體分析的主要限制因素是當(dāng)出現(xiàn)六個(gè)以上的接觸力是使其靜力不確定,因此,這種方法無(wú)法確定工件移位的唯一性。
這種限制可以通過(guò)計(jì)算夾具——工件系統(tǒng)[15]的彈性來(lái)克服,對(duì)于一個(gè)相對(duì)嚴(yán)格的工件,該夾具在機(jī)械加工工件的位置會(huì)受夾具點(diǎn)的局部彈性變形的強(qiáng)烈影響。Hockenberger和得墨忒耳[16]使用經(jīng)驗(yàn)的接觸力變形的關(guān)系(稱(chēng)為元功能),解決由于夾緊和準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)加工力工件剛體位移。同一作者還考察了加工工件夾具位移對(duì)設(shè)計(jì)參數(shù)的影響[17]。桂 [18] 等 通過(guò)工件的夾緊力的優(yōu)化定位精度彈性接觸模型對(duì)報(bào)告做了改善,然而,他們沒(méi)有處理計(jì)算夾具與工件的接觸剛度的方法,此外,其算法的應(yīng)用沒(méi)有討論機(jī)械加工刀具路徑負(fù)載有限序列。李和Melkote [19]和烏爾塔多和Melkote [20]用接觸力學(xué)解決由于在加載夾具夾緊點(diǎn)彈性變形產(chǎn)生的接觸力和工件的位移,他們還使用此方法制定了優(yōu)化方法夾具布局[21]和夾緊力[22]。但是,關(guān)于multiclamp系統(tǒng)及其對(duì)工件精度影響的夾緊力的優(yōu)化并沒(méi)有在這些文件中提到 。
本文提出了一種新的算法,確定了multiclamp夾具工件系統(tǒng)受到準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)加載的最佳夾緊力為基礎(chǔ)的彈性方法。該法旨在盡量減少影響由于工件夾緊位移和加工荷載通過(guò)系統(tǒng)優(yōu)化夾緊力的一部分定位精度。接觸力學(xué)模型,用于確定接觸力和位移,然后再用做夾緊力優(yōu)化,這個(gè)問(wèn)題被作為多目標(biāo)約束優(yōu)化問(wèn)題提出和解決。通過(guò)兩個(gè)例子分析工件夾緊力的優(yōu)化對(duì)定位精度的影響,例子涉及的銑削夾具3-2-1布局。
1. 夾具——工件聯(lián)系模型
1.1 模型假設(shè)
該加工夾具由L定位器和帶有球形端的c形夾組成。工件和夾具接觸的地方是線(xiàn)性的彈性接觸,其他地方完全剛性。工件——夾具系統(tǒng)由于夾緊和加工受到準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)負(fù)載。夾緊力可假定為在加工過(guò)程中保持不變,這個(gè)假設(shè)是有效的,在對(duì)液壓或氣動(dòng)夾具使用。在實(shí)際中,夾具工件接觸區(qū)域是彈性分布,然而,這種模式的發(fā)展,假設(shè)總觸剛度(見(jiàn)圖1)第i夾具接觸力局部變形如下:
(1) 其中(j=x,y,z)表示,在當(dāng)?shù)刈幼鴺?biāo)系切線(xiàn)和法線(xiàn)方向的接觸剛度
第 19 頁(yè) 共 15 頁(yè)
圖1 彈簧夾具——
工件接觸模型。
表示在第i個(gè)
接觸處的坐標(biāo)系
(j=x,y,z)是對(duì)應(yīng)沿著xyz方向的彈性變形,分別 (j= x,y,z)的代表和切向力接觸 ,法線(xiàn)力接觸。
1.2 工件——夾具的接觸剛度模型
集中遵守一個(gè)球形尖端定位,夾具和工件的接觸并不是線(xiàn)性的,因?yàn)榻佑|半徑與隨法線(xiàn)力呈非線(xiàn)性變化 [23]。由于法線(xiàn)力接觸變形作用于半徑和平面工件表面之間,這可從封閉赫茲的辦法解決縮進(jìn)一個(gè)球體彈性半空間的問(wèn)題。對(duì)于這個(gè)問(wèn)題, 是法線(xiàn)的變形,在[文獻(xiàn)23 第93頁(yè)]中給出如下:
(2)
其中式中 和是工件和夾具的彈性模量,、分別是工件和材料的泊松比。
切向變形沿著和切線(xiàn)方向)硅業(yè)切力距有以下形式[文獻(xiàn)23第217頁(yè)]
(3)
其中、 分別是工件和夾具剪切模量
一個(gè)合理的接觸剛度的線(xiàn)性可以近似從最小二乘獲得適合式 (2),這就產(chǎn)生了以下線(xiàn)性化接觸剛度值:在計(jì)算上述的線(xiàn)性近似,
(4)
(5)
正常的力被假定為從0到1000N,且最小二乘擬合相應(yīng)的R2值認(rèn)定是0.94。
2.夾緊力優(yōu)化
我們的目標(biāo)是確定最優(yōu)夾緊力,將盡量減少由于工件剛體運(yùn)動(dòng)過(guò)程中,局部的夾緊和加工負(fù)荷引起的彈性變形,同時(shí)保持在準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)加工過(guò)程中夾具——工件系統(tǒng)平衡,工件的位移減少,從而減少定位誤差。實(shí)現(xiàn)這個(gè)目標(biāo)是通過(guò)制定一個(gè)多目標(biāo)約束優(yōu)化問(wèn)題的問(wèn)題,如下描述。
2.1 目標(biāo)函數(shù)配方
工件旋轉(zhuǎn),由于部隊(duì)輪換往往是相當(dāng)小[17]的工件定位誤差假設(shè)為確定其剛體翻譯基本上,其中 、、和 是 沿,和三個(gè)正交組件(見(jiàn)圖2)。
圖2 工件剛體平移和旋轉(zhuǎn)
工件的定位誤差歸于裝夾力,然后可以在該剛體位移的范數(shù)計(jì)算如下:
(6)
其中表示一個(gè)向量二級(jí)標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。
但是作用在工件的夾緊力會(huì)影響定位誤差。當(dāng)多個(gè)夾緊力作用于工件,由此產(chǎn)生的夾緊力為,有如下形式:
(7)
其中夾緊力是矢量,夾緊力的方向矩陣,是夾緊力是矢量的方向余弦,、和 是第i個(gè)夾緊點(diǎn)夾緊力在、和方向上的向量角度(i=1、2、3...,C)。
在這個(gè)文件中,由于接觸區(qū)變形造成的工件的定位誤差,被假定為受的作用力是法線(xiàn)的,接觸的摩擦力相對(duì)較小,并在進(jìn)行分析時(shí)忽略了加緊力對(duì)工件的定位誤差的影響。意指正常接觸剛度比,是通過(guò)(i=1,2…L)和最小的所有定位器正常剛度相乘,并假設(shè)工件、、取決于、、的方向,各自的等效接觸剛度可有下式計(jì)算得出(見(jiàn)圖3),工件剛體運(yùn)動(dòng),歸于夾緊行動(dòng)現(xiàn)在可以寫(xiě)成:
(8)
工件有位移,因此,定位誤差的減小可以通過(guò)盡量減少產(chǎn)生的夾緊力向量 范數(shù)。因此,第一個(gè)目標(biāo)函數(shù)可以寫(xiě)為:
最小化 (9)
要注意,加權(quán)因素是與等效接觸剛度成正比的在、和 方向上。通過(guò)使用最低總能量互補(bǔ)參考文獻(xiàn)[15,23]的原則求解彈性力學(xué)接觸問(wèn)題得出A的組成部分是唯一確定的,這保證了夾緊力和相應(yīng)的定位反應(yīng)是“真正的”解決方案,對(duì)接觸問(wèn)題和產(chǎn)生的“真正”剛體位移,而且工件保持在靜態(tài)平衡,通過(guò)夾緊力的隨時(shí)調(diào)整。因此,總能量最小化的形式為補(bǔ)充的夾緊力優(yōu)化的第二個(gè)目標(biāo)函數(shù),并給出:
最小化 (10)
其中代表機(jī)構(gòu)的彈性變形應(yīng)變能互補(bǔ),代表由外部力量和力矩配合完成,是遵守對(duì)角矩陣的, 和是所有接觸力的載體。
如圖3 加權(quán)系數(shù)計(jì)算確定的基礎(chǔ)
內(nèi)蒙古科技大學(xué)本科生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(外文翻譯)
2.2 摩擦和靜態(tài)平衡約束
在(10)式優(yōu)化的目標(biāo)受到一定的限制和約束,他們中最重要的是在每個(gè)接觸處的靜摩擦力約束。庫(kù)侖摩擦力的法律規(guī)定(是靜態(tài)摩擦系數(shù)),這方面的一個(gè)非線(xiàn)性約束和線(xiàn)性化版本可以使用,并且[19]有:
(11)
假設(shè)準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)載荷,工件的靜力平衡由下列力和力矩平衡方程確保(向量形式):
(12)
其中包括在法線(xiàn)和切線(xiàn)方向的力和力矩的機(jī)械加工力和工件重量。
2.3界接觸力
由于夾具——工件接觸是單側(cè)面的,法線(xiàn)的接觸力只能被壓縮。這通過(guò)以下的的約束表(i=1,2…,L+C) (13)
它假設(shè)在工件上的法線(xiàn)力是確定的,此外,在一個(gè)法線(xiàn)的接觸壓力不能超過(guò)壓工件材料的屈服強(qiáng)度()。這個(gè)約束可寫(xiě)為:
(i=1,2,…,L+C) (14)
如果是在第i個(gè)工件——夾具的接觸處的接觸面積,完整的夾緊力優(yōu)化模型,可以寫(xiě)成:最小化 (15)
3.模型算法求解
式(15)多目標(biāo)優(yōu)化問(wèn)題可以通過(guò)求解約束[24]。這種方法將確定的目標(biāo)作為首要職能之一,并將其轉(zhuǎn)換成一個(gè)約束對(duì)。該補(bǔ)充()的主要目的是處理功能,并由此得到夾緊力()作為約束的加權(quán)范數(shù)最小化。對(duì)為主要目標(biāo)的選擇,確保選中一套獨(dú)特可行的夾緊力,因此,工件——夾具系統(tǒng)驅(qū)動(dòng)到一個(gè)穩(wěn)定的狀態(tài)(即最低能量狀態(tài)),此狀態(tài)也表示有最小的夾緊力下的加權(quán)范數(shù)。 的約束轉(zhuǎn)換涉及到一個(gè)指定的加權(quán)范數(shù)小于或等于,其中是 的約束,假設(shè)最初所有夾緊力不明確,要確定一個(gè)合適的。在定位和夾緊點(diǎn)的接觸力的計(jì)算只考慮第一個(gè)目標(biāo)函數(shù)(即)。雖然有這樣的接觸力,并不一定產(chǎn)生最低的夾緊力,這是一個(gè)“真正的”可行的解決彈性力學(xué)問(wèn)題辦法,可完全抑制工件在夾具中的位置。這些夾緊力的加權(quán)系數(shù),通過(guò)計(jì)算并作為初始值與比較,因此,夾緊力式(15)的優(yōu)化問(wèn)題可改寫(xiě)為:
最小化 (16)
由: (11)–(14) 得。
類(lèi)似的算法尋找一個(gè)方程根的二分法來(lái)確定最低的上的約束, 通過(guò)盡可能降低上限,由此產(chǎn)生的最小夾緊力的加權(quán)范數(shù)。 迭代次數(shù)K,終止搜索取決于所需的預(yù)測(cè)精度和,有參考文獻(xiàn)[15]:
(17)
其中表示上限的功能,完整的算法在如圖4中給出。
圖4 夾緊力的優(yōu)化算法(在示例1中使用)。 圖5 該算法在示例2使用
4. 加工過(guò)程中的夾緊力的優(yōu)化及測(cè)定
上一節(jié)介紹的算法可用于確定單負(fù)載作用于工件的載體的最佳夾緊力,然而,刀具路徑隨磨削量和切割點(diǎn)的不斷變化而變化。因此,相應(yīng)的夾緊力和最佳的加工負(fù)荷獲得將由圖4算法獲得,這大大增加了計(jì)算負(fù)擔(dān),并要求為選擇的夾緊力提供標(biāo)準(zhǔn), 將獲得滿(mǎn)意和適宜的整個(gè)刀具軌跡 ,用保守的辦法來(lái)解決下面將被討論的問(wèn)題,考慮一個(gè)有限的數(shù)目(例如m)沿相應(yīng)的刀具路徑設(shè)置的產(chǎn)生m個(gè)最佳夾緊力,選擇記為, , …,在每個(gè)采樣點(diǎn),考慮以下四個(gè)最壞加工負(fù)荷向量:
(18)、和表示在、和方向上的最大值,、和上的數(shù)字1,2,3分別代替對(duì)應(yīng)的和另外兩個(gè)正交切削分力,而且有:
雖然4個(gè)最壞情況加工負(fù)荷向量不會(huì)在工件加工的同一時(shí)刻出現(xiàn),但在每次常規(guī)的進(jìn)給速度中,刀具旋轉(zhuǎn)一次出現(xiàn)一次,負(fù)載向量引入的誤差可忽略。因此,在這項(xiàng)工作中,四個(gè)載體負(fù)載適用于同一位置,(但不是同時(shí))對(duì)工件進(jìn)行的采樣 ,夾緊力的優(yōu)化算法圖4,對(duì)應(yīng)于每個(gè)采樣點(diǎn)計(jì)算最佳的夾緊力。夾緊力的最佳形式有:
(i=1,2,…,m) (j=x,y z,r) (19)
其中是最佳夾緊力的四個(gè)情況下的加工負(fù)荷載體,(C=1,2,…C)是每個(gè)相應(yīng)的夾具在第i個(gè)樣本點(diǎn)和第j負(fù)荷情況下力的大小。是計(jì)算每個(gè)負(fù)載點(diǎn)之后的結(jié)果,一套簡(jiǎn)單的“最佳”夾緊力必須從所有的樣本點(diǎn)和裝載條件里發(fā)現(xiàn),并在所有的最佳夾緊力中選擇。這是通過(guò)在所有負(fù)載情況和采樣點(diǎn)排序,并選擇夾緊點(diǎn)的最高值的最佳的夾緊力,見(jiàn)于式 (20):
(k=1,2,…,C) (20)
只要這些具備,就得到一套優(yōu)化的夾緊力,驗(yàn)證這些力,以確保工件夾具系統(tǒng)的靜態(tài)平衡。否則,會(huì)出現(xiàn)更多采樣點(diǎn)和重復(fù)上述程序。在這種方式中,可為整個(gè)刀具路徑確定“最佳”夾緊力 ,圖5總結(jié)了剛才所描述的算法。請(qǐng)注意,雖然這種方法是保守的,它提供了一個(gè)確定的夾緊力,最大限度地減少工件的定位誤差的一套系統(tǒng)方法。
5.影響工件的定位精度
它的興趣在于最早提出了評(píng)價(jià)夾緊力的算法對(duì)工件的定位精度的影響。工件首先放在與夾具接觸的基板上,然后夾緊力使工件接觸到夾具,因此,局部變形發(fā)生在每個(gè)工件夾具接觸處,使工件在夾具上移位和旋轉(zhuǎn)。隨后,準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)加工負(fù)荷應(yīng)用造成工件在夾具的移位。工件剛體運(yùn)動(dòng)的定義是由它在、和方向上的移位和自轉(zhuǎn)(見(jiàn)圖2),
如前所述,工件剛體位移產(chǎn)生于在每個(gè)夾緊處的局部變形,假設(shè)為相對(duì)于工件的質(zhì)量中心的第i個(gè)位置矢量定位點(diǎn),坐標(biāo)變換定理可以用來(lái)表達(dá)在工件的位移,以及工件自轉(zhuǎn)如下: (21)
其中表示旋轉(zhuǎn)矩陣,描述當(dāng)?shù)卦诘趇幀相聯(lián)系的全球坐標(biāo)系和是一個(gè)旋轉(zhuǎn)矩陣確定工件相對(duì)于全球的坐標(biāo)系的定位坐標(biāo)系。假設(shè)夾具夾緊工件旋轉(zhuǎn),由于旋轉(zhuǎn)很小,故也可近似為:
(22)
方程(21)現(xiàn)在可以改寫(xiě)為: (23)
其中是經(jīng)方程(21)重新編排后變換得到的矩陣式,是夾緊和加工導(dǎo)致的工件剛體運(yùn)動(dòng)矢量。工件與夾具單方面接觸性質(zhì)意味著工件與夾具接觸處沒(méi)有拉力的可能。因此,在第i裝夾點(diǎn)接觸力可能與的關(guān)系如下:
(24)
其中是在第i個(gè)接觸點(diǎn)由于夾緊和加工負(fù)荷造成的變形,意味著凈壓縮變形,而負(fù)數(shù)則代表拉伸變形; 是表示在本地坐標(biāo)系第i個(gè)接觸剛度矩陣,是單位向量. 在這項(xiàng)研究中假定液壓/氣動(dòng)夾具,根據(jù)對(duì)外加工負(fù)荷,故在法線(xiàn)方向的夾緊力的強(qiáng)度保持不變,因此,必須對(duì)方程(24)的夾緊點(diǎn)進(jìn)行修改為:
(25)
其中是在第i個(gè)夾緊點(diǎn)的夾緊力,讓表示一個(gè)對(duì)外加工力量和載體的6×1矢量。并結(jié)合方程(23)—(25)與靜態(tài)平衡方程,得到下面的方程組:
(26)
其中,其中表示相乘。由于夾緊和加工工件剛體移動(dòng),q可通過(guò)求解式(26)得到。工件的定位誤差向量, (見(jiàn)圖6),
現(xiàn)在可以計(jì)算如下: (27)
其中是考慮工件中心加工點(diǎn)的位置向量,且
6.模擬工作
較早前提出的算法是用來(lái)確定最佳夾緊力及其對(duì)兩例工件精度的影響例如:
1.適用于工件單點(diǎn)力。
2.應(yīng)用于工件負(fù)載準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)銑削序列
如左圖7 工件夾具配置中使用的模擬研究 工件夾具定位聯(lián)系; 、和全球坐標(biāo)系。
3-2-1夾具圖7所示,是用來(lái)定位并控制7075 - T6鋁合金(127毫米×127毫米×38.1毫米)的柱狀塊。假定為球形布局傾斜硬鋼定位器/夾具在表1中給出。工件——夾具材料的摩擦靜電對(duì)系數(shù)為0.25。使用伊利諾伊大學(xué)開(kāi)發(fā)EMSIM程序[參考文獻(xiàn)26] 對(duì)加工瞬時(shí)銑削力條件進(jìn)行了計(jì)算,如表2給出例(1),應(yīng)用工件在點(diǎn)(109.2毫米,25.4毫米,34.3毫米)瞬時(shí)加工力,圖4中表3和表4列出了初級(jí)夾緊力和最佳夾緊力的算法 。該算法如圖5所示 ,一個(gè)25.4毫米銑槽使用EMSIM進(jìn)行了數(shù)值模擬,以減少起步(0.0毫米,25.4毫米,34.3毫米)和結(jié)束時(shí)(127.0毫米,25.4毫米,34.3毫米)四種情況下加工負(fù)荷載體,
(見(jiàn)圖8)。模擬計(jì)算銑削力數(shù)據(jù)在表5中給出。
圖8最終銑削過(guò)程模擬例如2。
表6中5個(gè)坐標(biāo)列出了為模擬抽樣調(diào)查點(diǎn)。最佳夾緊力是用前面討論過(guò)的排序算法計(jì)算每個(gè)采樣點(diǎn)和負(fù)載載體最后的夾緊力和負(fù)載。
7.結(jié)果與討論
例如算法1的繪制最佳夾緊力收斂圖9,
圖9
對(duì)于固定夾緊裝置在圖示例假設(shè)(見(jiàn)圖7),由此得到的夾緊力加權(quán)范數(shù)有如下形式:.結(jié)果表明,最佳夾緊力所述加工條件下有比初步夾緊力強(qiáng)度低得多的加權(quán)范數(shù),最初的夾緊力是通過(guò)減少工件的夾具系統(tǒng)補(bǔ)充能量算法獲得。由于夾緊力和負(fù)載造成的工件的定位誤差,如表7。結(jié)果表明工件旋轉(zhuǎn)小,加工點(diǎn)減少錯(cuò)誤從13.1%到14.6%不等。在這種情況下,所有加工條件改善不是很大,因?yàn)閺淖畛跬ㄟ^(guò)互補(bǔ)勢(shì)能確定的最小化的夾緊力值已接近最佳夾緊力。圖5算法是用第二例在一個(gè)序列應(yīng)用于銑削負(fù)載到工件,他應(yīng)用于工件銑削負(fù)載一個(gè)序列。最佳的夾緊力,,對(duì)應(yīng)列表6每個(gè)樣本點(diǎn),隨著最后的最佳夾緊力,在每個(gè)采樣點(diǎn)的加權(quán)范數(shù)和最優(yōu)的初始夾緊力繪圖10,在每個(gè)采樣點(diǎn)的加權(quán)范數(shù)的,,和繪制。
結(jié)果表明,由于每個(gè)組成部分是各相應(yīng)的最大夾緊力,它具有最高的加權(quán)范數(shù)。如圖10所示,如果在每個(gè)夾緊點(diǎn)最大組成部分是用于確定初步夾緊力,則夾緊力需相應(yīng)設(shè)置,有比相當(dāng)大的加權(quán)范數(shù)。故是一個(gè)完整的刀具路徑改進(jìn)方案。上述模擬結(jié)果表明,該方法可用于優(yōu)化夾緊力相對(duì)于初始夾緊力的強(qiáng)度,這種做法將減少所造成的夾緊力的加權(quán)范數(shù),因此將提高工件的定位精度。
圖10
8.結(jié)論
該文件提出了關(guān)于確定多鉗夾具,工件受準(zhǔn)靜態(tài)加載系統(tǒng)的優(yōu)化加工夾緊力的新方法。夾緊力的優(yōu)化算法是基于接觸力學(xué)的夾具與工件系統(tǒng)模型,并尋求盡量減少應(yīng)用到所造成的工件夾緊力的加權(quán)范數(shù),得出工件的定位誤差。該整體模型,制定一個(gè)雙目標(biāo)約束優(yōu)化問(wèn)題,使用-約束的方法解決。該算法通過(guò)兩個(gè)模擬表明,涉及3-2-1型,二夾銑夾具的例子。今后的工作將解決在動(dòng)態(tài)負(fù)載存在夾具與工件在系統(tǒng)的優(yōu)化,其中慣性,剛度和阻尼效應(yīng)在確定工件夾具系統(tǒng)的響應(yīng)特性具有重要作用。
9.參考資料:
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大連交通大學(xué)2010屆本科畢業(yè)生畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)(論文)外文翻譯
Machine design theory
I. Introduction
Mechanical engineering, an important and widely applied engineering field closely related to people
′s social activities, provides manufacturing technologies and equipment to create material wealth and promote social progress in the construction of China′s national economy. As a traditional engineering field since the beginning of human history, mechanical engineering has always been the focus of all kinds of production activities. For instance, the First and Second Industrial Revolutions, as well as the present Information Revolution, are all directly or indirectly related to its development. Mechanical engineering is also a rapidly developing field. With the growth and permeation of electronic technology, automation technology, computer and software technique, material science, the foundation of the field has been enriched, the research in this field has been broadened and developed. Therefore, mechanical products and production processes are promoted to develop toward precision, automation, intelligence, progression, integration and high efficiency.
II..Machine design theory
The machine design is through designs the new product or improves the old product to meet the human need the application technical science. It involves the project technology each domain, mainly studies the product the size, the shape and the detailed structure basic idea, but also must study the product the personnel which in aspect the and so on manufacture, sale and use question.
Carries on each kind of machine design work to be usually called designs the personnel or machine design engineer. The machine design is a creative work. Project engineer not only must have the creativity in the work, but also must in aspect and so on mechanical drawing, kinematics, engineerig material, materials mechanics and machine manufacture technology has the deep elementary knowledge.
If front sues, the machine design goal is the production can meet the human need the product. The invention, the discovery and technical knowledge itself certainly not necessarily can bring the advantage to the humanity, only has when they are applied can produce on the product the benefit. Thus, should realize to carries on before the design in a specific product, must first determine whether the people do need this kind of product
Must regard as the machine design is the machine design personnel carries on using creative ability the product design, the system analysis and a formulation product manufacture technology good opportunity. Grasps the project elementary knowledge to have to memorize some data and the formula is more important than. The merely service data and the formula is insufficient to the completely decision which makes in a good design needs. On the other hand, should be earnest precisely carries on all operations. For example, even if places wrong a decimal point position, also can cause the correct design to turn wrongly.
A good design personnel should dare to propose the new idea, moreover is willing to undertake the certain risk, when the new method is not suitable, use original method. Therefore, designs the personnel to have to have to have the patience, because spends the time and the endeavor certainly cannot guarantee brings successfully. A brand-new design, the request screen abandons obsoletely many, knows very well the method for the people. Because many person of conservativeness, does this certainly is not an easy matter. A mechanical designer should unceasingly explore the improvement existing product the method, should earnestly choose originally, the process confirmation principle of design in this process, with has not unified it after the confirmation new idea.
Newly designs itself can have the question occurrence which many flaws and has not been able to expect, only has after these flaws and the question are solved, can manifest new goods come into the market the product superiority. Therefore, a performance superior product is born at the same time, also is following a higher risk. Should emphas ize, if designs itself does not request to use the brand-new method, is not unnecessary merely for the goal which transform to use the new method.
In the design preliminary stage, should allow to design the personnel fully to display the creativity, not each kind of restraint. Even if has had many impractical ideas, also can in the design early time, namely in front of the plan blueprint is corrected. Only then, only then does not send to stops up the innovation the mentality. Usually, must propose several sets of design proposals, then perform the comparison. Has the possibility very much in the plan which finally designated, has used certain not in plan some ideas which accepts.
How does the psychologist frequently discuss causes the machine which the people adapts them to operate. Designs personnel''s basic responsibility is diligently causes the machine to adapt the people. This certainly is not an easy work, because certainly does not have to all people to say in fact all is the most superior operating area and the operating process.
Another important question, project engineer must be able to carry on the exchange and the consultation with other concerned personnel. In the initial stage, designs the personnel to have to carry on the exchange and the consultation on the preliminary design with the administrative personnel, and is approved. This generally is through the oral discussion, the schematic diagram and the writing material carries on. In order to carry on the effective exchange, needs to solve the following problem:
(1) designs whether this product truly does need for the people? Whether there is competitive ability
(2) does this product compare with other companies'' existing similar products?
(3) produces this kind of product is whether economical?
(4) product service is whether convenient?
(5) product whether there is sale? Whether may gain?
Only has the time to be able to produce the correct answer to above question. But, the product design, the manufacture and the sale only can in carry on to the above question preliminary affirmation answer foundation in. Project engineer also should through the detail drawing and the assembly drawing, carries on the consultation together with the branch of manufacture to the finally design proposal.
Usually, can have some problem in the manufacture process. Possibly can request to some components size or the common difference makes some changes, causes the components the production to change easily. But, in the project change must have to pass through designs the personnel to authorize, guaranteed cannot damage the product the function. Sometimes, when in front of product assembly or in the packing foreign shipment experiment only then discovers in the design some kind of flaw. These instances exactly showed the design is a dynamic process. Always has a better method to complete the design work, designs the personnel to be supposed unceasingly diligently, seeks these better method.
Recent year, the engineerig material choice already appeared importantly. In addition, the choice process should be to the material continuously the unceasing again appraisal process. The new material unceasingly appears, but some original materials can obtain the quantity possibly can reduce. The environmental pollution, material recycling aspect and so on use, worker''s health and security frequently can attach the new limiting condition to the choice of material. In order to reduce the weight or saves the energy, possibly can request the use different material. Comes from domestic and international competition, to product service maintenance convenience request enhancement and customer''s aspect the and so on feedback pressure, can urge the people to carry on to the material reappraises. Because the material does not select when created the product responsibility lawsuit, has already had the profound influence. In addition, the material and between the material processing interdependence is already known by the people clearly. Therefore, in order to can and guarantees the quality in the reasonable cost under the premise to obtain satisfaction the result, project engineer makes engineers all to have earnestly carefully to choose, the determination and the use material.
Makes any product the first step of work all is designs. Designs usually may divide into several explicit stages: (a) preliminary design; (b) functional design; (c) production design. In the preliminary design stage, the designer emphatically considered the product should have function. Usually must conceive and consider several plans, then decided this kind of thought is whether feasible; If is feasible, then should makes the further improvement to or several plans. In this stage, the question which only must consider about the choice of material is: Whether has the performance to conform to the request material to be possible to supply the choice; If no, whether has a bigger assurance all permits in the cost and the time in the limit develops one kind of new material.
In the functional design and the engineering design stage, needs to make a practical feasible design. Must draw up the quite complete blueprint in this stage, chooses and determines each kind of components the material. Usually must make the prototype or the working model, and carries on the experiment to it, the appraisal product function, the reliability, the outward appearance and the service maintenance and so on. Although this kind of experiment possibly can indicate, enters in the product to the production base in front of, should replace certain materials, but, absolutely cannot this point take not earnestly chooses the material the excuse. Should unify the product the function, earnestly carefully considers the product the outward appearance, the cost and the reliability. Has the achievement very much the company when manufacture all prototypes, selects the material sh ould the material which uses with its production in be same, and uses the similar manufacture technology as far as possible. Like this has the advantage very much to the company. The function complete prototype if cannot act according to the anticipated sales volume economically to make, or is prototypical and the official production installment has in the quality and the reliable aspect is very greatly different, then this kind of prototype does not have the great value. Project engineer is best can completely complete the material in this stage the analysis, the choice and the determination work, but is not remains it to the production design stage does. Because, is carries on in the production design stage material replacement by other people, these people are inferior to project engineer to the product all functions understanding.
In the production design stage, is should completely determine with the material related main question the material, causes them to adapt with the existing equipment, can use the existing equipment economically to carry on the processing, moreover the material quantity can quite be easy to guarantee the supply.
In the manufacture process, inevitably can appear to uses the material to make some changes the situation. The experience indicated that, may use certain cheap materials to take the substitute. However, in the majority situation, in will carry on the production later to change the material to have in to start before the production to change the price which the material will spend to have to be higher than. Completes the choice of material work in the design stage, may avoid the most such situations. Started after the production manufacture to appear has been possible to supply the use the new material is replaces the material the most common reason. Certainly, these new materials possibly reduce the cost, the improvement product performance. But, must carry on the earnest appraisal to the new material, guarantees its all performance all to answer the purpose. Must remember that, the new material performance and the reliable very few pictures materials on hand such understood for the people. The majority of products expiration and the product accident caused by negligence case is because in selects the new material to take in front of substitution material, not truly understood their long-term operational performance causes.
The product responsibility lawsuit forces designs the personnel and the company when the choice material, uses the best procedure. In the material process, five most common questions are: (a) did not understand or cannot use about the material application aspect most newly the best information paper; (b) has not been able to foresee and to consider the dusk year possible reasonable use (for example to have the possibility, designs the personnel also to be supposed further to forecast and the consideration because product application method not when creates consequence. ecent years many products responsibilities lawsuit case, because wrongly uses the plaintiff which the product receives the injury to accuse produces the factory, and wins the decision); (c) uses the material data not entire perhaps some data are indefinite, works as its long-term performance data is the like this time in particular; (d) the quality control method is not suitable and not after the confirmation; (e) the personnel which completely is not competent for the post by some chooses the material.
Through to the above five questions analysis, may obtain these questions is does not have the sufficient reason existence the conclusion. May for avoid these questions to these questions research analyses the appearance indicating the direction. Although uses the best choice of material method not to be able to avoid having the product responsibility lawsuit, designs the personnel and the industry carries on the choice of material according to the suitable procedure, may greatly reduce the lawsuit the quantity.
May see from the above discussion, the choice material people should to the material nature, the characteristic and the processing method have comprehensive and the basic understanding
機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)理論
一、概述
機(jī)械工程是為國(guó)民經(jīng)濟(jì)建設(shè)和社會(huì)發(fā)展提供各類(lèi)機(jī)械裝備和生產(chǎn)制造技術(shù)以創(chuàng)造物質(zhì)財(cái)富和提高社會(huì)文明水準(zhǔn)的重要工程領(lǐng)域,是與人類(lèi)社會(huì)活動(dòng)關(guān)系十分密切、應(yīng)用非常廣泛的工程領(lǐng)域。它是一個(gè)傳統(tǒng)的工程領(lǐng)域,自人類(lèi)有史以來(lái),就為生產(chǎn)活動(dòng)所關(guān)注,第一次工業(yè)革命、第二次工業(yè)革命乃至當(dāng)前的信息革命,無(wú)不直接或間接地同機(jī)械工程的發(fā)展有密切關(guān)系;它也是一個(gè)發(fā)展迅速的工程領(lǐng)域,隨著電子技術(shù)、自動(dòng)化技術(shù)、計(jì)算機(jī)及軟件技術(shù)、材料科學(xué)的發(fā)展和滲透,充實(shí)和豐富了本領(lǐng)域的基礎(chǔ),拓寬和發(fā)展了本領(lǐng)域的研究范疇,并促進(jìn)機(jī)械產(chǎn)品和生產(chǎn)過(guò)程向精密化、自動(dòng)化、智能化、連續(xù)化、高效化、集成化方向發(fā)展。
本領(lǐng)域涉及機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)、制造、試驗(yàn)、使用、維修等基礎(chǔ)理論、技術(shù)和方法。并與材料工程、動(dòng)力工程、電氣工程、電子與信息工程、控制工程、計(jì)算機(jī)技術(shù)、工業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)工程等工程領(lǐng)域及力學(xué)學(xué)科密切相關(guān)。
二、機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)理論
機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)是一門(mén)通過(guò)設(shè)計(jì)新產(chǎn)品或者改進(jìn)老產(chǎn)品來(lái)滿(mǎn)足人類(lèi)需求的應(yīng)用技術(shù)科學(xué)。它涉及工程技術(shù)的各個(gè)領(lǐng)域,主要研究產(chǎn)品的尺寸、形狀和詳細(xì)結(jié)構(gòu)的基本構(gòu)思,還要研究產(chǎn)品在制造、銷(xiāo)售和使用等方面的問(wèn)題。
進(jìn)行各種機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)工作的人員通常被稱(chēng)為設(shè)計(jì)人員或者機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)工程師。機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)是一項(xiàng)創(chuàng)造性的工作。設(shè)計(jì)工程師不僅在工作上要有創(chuàng)造性,還必須在機(jī)械制圖、運(yùn)動(dòng)學(xué)、工程材料、材料力學(xué)和機(jī)械制造工藝學(xué)等方面具有深厚的基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)。
如前所訴,機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)的目的是生產(chǎn)能夠滿(mǎn)足人類(lèi)需求的產(chǎn)品。發(fā)明、發(fā)現(xiàn)和科技知識(shí)本身并不一定能給人類(lèi)帶來(lái)好處,只有當(dāng)它們被應(yīng)用在產(chǎn)品上才能產(chǎn)生效益。因而,應(yīng)該認(rèn)識(shí)到在一個(gè)特定的產(chǎn)品進(jìn)行設(shè)計(jì)之前,必須先確定人們是否需要這種產(chǎn)品。
應(yīng)當(dāng)把機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)看成是機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)人員運(yùn)用創(chuàng)造性的才能進(jìn)行產(chǎn)品設(shè)計(jì)、系統(tǒng)分析和制定產(chǎn)品的制造工藝學(xué)的一個(gè)良機(jī)。掌握工程基礎(chǔ)知識(shí)要比熟記一些數(shù)據(jù)和公式更為重要。僅僅使用數(shù)據(jù)和公式是不足以在一個(gè)好的設(shè)計(jì)中做出所需的全部決定的。另一方面,應(yīng)該認(rèn)真精確的進(jìn)行所有運(yùn)算。例如,即使將一個(gè)小數(shù)點(diǎn)的位置放錯(cuò),也會(huì)使正確的設(shè)計(jì)變成錯(cuò)誤的。
一個(gè)好的設(shè)計(jì)人員應(yīng)該勇于提出新的想法,而且愿意承擔(dān)一定的風(fēng)險(xiǎn),當(dāng)新的方法不適用時(shí),就使用原來(lái)的方法。因此,設(shè)計(jì)人員必須要有耐心,因?yàn)?所花費(fèi)的時(shí)間和努力并不能保證帶來(lái)成功。一個(gè)全新的設(shè)計(jì),要求屏棄許多陳舊的,為人們所熟知的方法。由于許多人墨守成規(guī),這樣做并不是一件容易的事。一位機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)師應(yīng)該不斷地探索改進(jìn)現(xiàn)有的產(chǎn)品的方法,在此過(guò)程中應(yīng)該認(rèn)真選擇原有的、經(jīng)過(guò)驗(yàn)證的設(shè)計(jì)原理,將其與未經(jīng)過(guò)驗(yàn)證的新觀念結(jié)合起來(lái)。
新設(shè)計(jì)本身會(huì)有許多缺陷和未能預(yù)料的問(wèn)題發(fā)生,只有當(dāng)這些缺陷和問(wèn)題被解決之后,才能體現(xiàn)出新產(chǎn)品的優(yōu)越性。因此,一個(gè)性能優(yōu)越的產(chǎn)品誕生的同時(shí),也伴隨著較高的風(fēng)險(xiǎn)。應(yīng)該強(qiáng)調(diào)的是,如果設(shè)計(jì)本身不要求采用全新的方法,就沒(méi)有必要僅僅為了變革的目的而采用新方法。
在設(shè)計(jì)的初始階段,應(yīng)該允許設(shè)計(jì)人員充分發(fā)揮創(chuàng)造性,不受各種約束。即使產(chǎn)生了許多不切實(shí)際的想法,也會(huì)在設(shè)計(jì)的早期,即繪制圖紙之前被改正掉。只有這樣,才不致于堵塞創(chuàng)新的思路。通常,要提出幾套設(shè)計(jì)方案,然后加以比較。很有可能在最后選定的方案中,采用了某些未被接受的方案中的一些想法。
心理學(xué)家經(jīng)常談?wù)撊绾问谷藗冞m應(yīng)他們所操作的機(jī)器。設(shè)計(jì)人員的基本職責(zé)是努力使機(jī)器來(lái)適應(yīng)人們。這并不是一項(xiàng)容易的工作,因?yàn)閷?shí)際上并不存在著一個(gè)對(duì)所有人來(lái)說(shuō)都是最優(yōu)的操作范圍和操作過(guò)程。
另一個(gè)重要問(wèn)題,設(shè)計(jì)工程師必須能夠同其他有關(guān)人員進(jìn)行交流和磋商。在開(kāi)始階段,設(shè)計(jì)人員必須就初步設(shè)計(jì)同管理人員進(jìn)行交流和磋商,并得到批準(zhǔn)。這一般是通過(guò)口頭討論,草圖和文字材料進(jìn)行的。為了進(jìn)行有效的交流 ,需要解決下列問(wèn)題:
(1) 所設(shè)計(jì)的這個(gè)產(chǎn)品是否真正為人們所需要?
(2) 此產(chǎn)品與其他公司的現(xiàn)有同類(lèi)產(chǎn)品相比有無(wú)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)能力?
(3) 生產(chǎn)這種產(chǎn)品是否經(jīng)濟(jì)?
(4) 產(chǎn)品的維修是否方便?
(5) 產(chǎn)品有無(wú)銷(xiāo)路?是否可以盈利?
只有時(shí)間能對(duì)上述問(wèn)題給出正確答案。但是, 產(chǎn)品的設(shè)計(jì)、制造和銷(xiāo)售只能在對(duì)上述問(wèn)題的初步肯定答案的基礎(chǔ)上進(jìn)行。設(shè)計(jì)工程師還應(yīng)該通過(guò)零件圖和裝配圖,與制造部門(mén)一起對(duì)最終設(shè)計(jì)方案進(jìn)行磋商。
通常 ,在制造過(guò)程中會(huì)出現(xiàn)某個(gè)問(wèn)題??赡軙?huì)要求對(duì)某個(gè)零件尺寸或公差作一些更改,使零件的生產(chǎn)變得容易。但是,工程上的更改必須要經(jīng)過(guò)設(shè)計(jì)人員批準(zhǔn),以保證不會(huì)損傷產(chǎn)品的功能。有時(shí),在產(chǎn)品的裝配時(shí)或者裝箱外運(yùn)前的試驗(yàn)中才發(fā)現(xiàn)設(shè)計(jì)中的某種缺陷。這些事例恰好說(shuō)明了設(shè)計(jì)是一個(gè)動(dòng)態(tài)過(guò)程。總是存在著更好的方法來(lái)完成設(shè)計(jì)工作,設(shè)計(jì)人員應(yīng)該不斷努力,尋找這些更好的方法。
近些年來(lái),工程材料的選擇已經(jīng)顯得重要。此外,選擇過(guò)程應(yīng)該是一個(gè)對(duì)材料的連續(xù)不斷的重新評(píng)價(jià)過(guò)程。新材料不斷出現(xiàn),而一些原有的材料的能夠獲得的數(shù)量可能會(huì)減少。環(huán)境污染、材料的回收利用、工人的健康及安全等方面經(jīng)常會(huì)對(duì)材料選擇附加新的限制條件。為了減輕重量或者節(jié)約能源,可能會(huì)要求使用不同的材料。來(lái)自國(guó)內(nèi)和國(guó)際競(jìng)爭(zhēng)、對(duì)產(chǎn)品維修保養(yǎng)方便性要求的提高和顧客的反饋等方面的壓力,都會(huì)促使人們對(duì)材料進(jìn)行重新評(píng)價(jià)。由于材料選用不當(dāng)造成的產(chǎn)品責(zé)任訴訟,已經(jīng)產(chǎn)生了深刻的影響。此外,材料與材料加工之間的相互依賴(lài)關(guān)系已經(jīng)被人們認(rèn)識(shí)得更清楚。因此,為了能在合理的成本和確保質(zhì)量的前提下獲得滿(mǎn)意的結(jié)果,設(shè)計(jì)工程師的制造工程師都必須認(rèn)真仔細(xì)地選擇、確定和使用材料。
制造任何產(chǎn)品的第一步工作都是設(shè)計(jì)。設(shè)計(jì)通??梢苑譃閹讉€(gè)明確的階段:(a)初步設(shè)計(jì);(b)功能設(shè)計(jì);(c)生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)。在初步設(shè)計(jì)階段,設(shè)計(jì)者著重考慮產(chǎn)品應(yīng)該具有的功能。通常要設(shè)想和考慮幾個(gè)方案,然后決定這種思想是否可行;如果可行,則應(yīng)該對(duì)其中一個(gè)或幾個(gè)方案作進(jìn)一步的改進(jìn)。在此階段,關(guān)于材料選擇唯一要考慮的問(wèn)題是:是否有性能符合要求的材料可供選擇;如果沒(méi)有的話(huà),是否有較大的把握在成本和時(shí)間都允許的限度內(nèi)研制出一種新材料。
在功能設(shè)計(jì)和工程設(shè)計(jì)階段,要做出一個(gè)切實(shí)可行的設(shè)計(jì)。在這個(gè)階段要繪制出相當(dāng)完整的圖紙,選擇并確定各種零件的材料。通常要制造出樣機(jī)或者實(shí)物模型,并對(duì)其進(jìn)行試驗(yàn),評(píng)價(jià)產(chǎn)品的功能、可靠性、外觀和維修保養(yǎng)性等。雖然這種試驗(yàn)可能會(huì)表明,在產(chǎn)品進(jìn)入到生產(chǎn)階段之前,應(yīng)該更換某些材料,但是,絕對(duì)不能將這一點(diǎn)作為不認(rèn)真選擇材料的借口。應(yīng)該結(jié)合產(chǎn)品的功能,認(rèn)真仔細(xì)地考慮產(chǎn)品的外觀、成本和可靠性。一個(gè)很有成就的公司在制造所有的樣機(jī)時(shí),所選用的材料應(yīng)該和其生產(chǎn)中使用的材料相同,并盡可能使用同樣的制造技術(shù)。這樣對(duì)公司是很有好處的。功能完備的樣機(jī)如果不能根據(jù)預(yù)期的銷(xiāo)售量經(jīng)濟(jì)地制造出來(lái),或者是樣機(jī)與正式生產(chǎn)的裝置在質(zhì)量和可靠性方面有很大不同,則這種樣機(jī)就沒(méi)有多大的價(jià)值。設(shè)計(jì)工程師最好能在這一階段完全完成材料的分析、選擇和確定工作,而不是將其留到生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段去做。因?yàn)椋谏a(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段材料的更換是由其他人進(jìn)行的,這些人對(duì)產(chǎn)品的所有功能的了解不如設(shè)計(jì)工程師。
在生產(chǎn)設(shè)計(jì)階段中,與材料有關(guān)的主要問(wèn)題是應(yīng)該把材料完全確定下來(lái),使它們與現(xiàn)有的設(shè)備相適應(yīng),能夠利用現(xiàn)有設(shè)備經(jīng)濟(jì)地進(jìn)行加工,而且材料的數(shù)量能夠比較容易保證供應(yīng)。
在制造過(guò)程中,不可避免地會(huì)出現(xiàn)對(duì)使用中的材料做一些更改的情況。經(jīng)驗(yàn)表明,可采用某些便宜材料作為替代品。然而,在大多數(shù)情況下,在進(jìn)行生產(chǎn)以后改換材料要比在開(kāi)始生產(chǎn)前改換材料所花費(fèi)的代價(jià)要高。在設(shè)計(jì)階段做好材料選擇工作,可以避免多數(shù)這樣的情況。在生產(chǎn)制造開(kāi)始后出現(xiàn)了可供使用的新材料是更換材料的最常見(jiàn)的原因。當(dāng)然,這些新材料可能降低成本、改進(jìn)產(chǎn)品的性能。但是,必須對(duì)新材料進(jìn)行認(rèn)真的評(píng)價(jià),以確保其所有性能都滿(mǎn)足要求。應(yīng)當(dāng)記住,新材料的性能和可靠性很少像現(xiàn)有材料那樣為人們所了解。大部分的產(chǎn)品失效和產(chǎn)品責(zé)任事故案件是由于在選用新材料作為替代材料之前,沒(méi)有真正了解它們的長(zhǎng)期使用性能而引起的。
產(chǎn)品的責(zé)任訴訟迫使設(shè)計(jì)人員和公司在選擇材料時(shí),采用最好的程序。在材料過(guò)程中,五個(gè)最常見(jiàn)的問(wèn)題為:(a)不了解或者不會(huì)使用關(guān)于材料應(yīng)用方面的最新最好的信息資料;(b)未能預(yù)見(jiàn)和考慮產(chǎn)品可能的合理用途(如有可能,設(shè)計(jì)人員還應(yīng)進(jìn)一步預(yù)測(cè)和考慮由于產(chǎn)品使用方法不當(dāng)造成的后果。在近年來(lái)的許多產(chǎn)品責(zé)任訴訟案件中,由于錯(cuò)誤地使用產(chǎn)品而受到傷害的原告控告生產(chǎn)廠家,并且贏得判決);(c)所使用的材料的數(shù)據(jù)不全或是有些數(shù)據(jù)不確定,尤其是當(dāng)其長(zhǎng)期性能數(shù)據(jù)是如此的時(shí)候;(d)質(zhì)量控制方法不適當(dāng)和未經(jīng)驗(yàn)證;(e)由一些完全不稱(chēng)職的人員選擇材料。
通過(guò)對(duì)上述五個(gè)問(wèn)題的分析,可以得出這些問(wèn)題是沒(méi)有充分理由存在的結(jié)論。對(duì)這些問(wèn)題的研究分析可以為避免這些問(wèn)題的出現(xiàn)指明方向。盡管采用最好的材料選擇方法也不能避免發(fā)生產(chǎn)品責(zé)任訴訟,設(shè)計(jì)人員和工業(yè)界按照適當(dāng)?shù)某绦蜻M(jìn)行材料選擇,可以大大減少訴訟的數(shù)量。
從以上的討論可以看出,選擇材料的人們應(yīng)該對(duì)材料的性質(zhì),特點(diǎn)和加工方法有一個(gè)全面而基本的了解。
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