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附錄-中英文翻譯 外文翻譯 英文原文 MACHINABILITY The machinability of a material usually defined in terms of four factors: 1、 Surface finish and integrity of the machined part; 2、 Tool life obtained; 3、 Force and power requirements; 4、 Chip control. Thus, good machinability good surface finish and integrity, long tool life, and low force And power requirements. As for chip control, long and thin (stringy) cured chips, if not broken up, can severely interfere with the cutting operation by becoming entangled in the cutting zone. Because of the complex nature of cutting operations, it is difficult to establish relationships that quantitatively define the machinability of a material. In manufacturing plants, tool life and surface roughness are generally considered to be the most important factors in machinability. Although not used much any more, approximate machinability ratings are available in the example below. 1 Machinability Of Steels Because steels are among the most important engineering materials (as noted in Chapter 5), their machinability has been studied extensively. The machinability of steels has been mainly improved by adding lead and sulfur to obtain so-called free-machining steels. Resulfurized and Rephosphorized steels. Sulfur in steels forms manganese sulfide inclusions (second-phase particles), which act as stress raisers in the primary shear zone. As a result, the chips produced break up easily and are small; this improves machinability. The size, shape, distribution, and concentration of these inclusions significantly influence machinability. Elements such as tellurium and selenium, which are both chemically similar to sulfur, act as inclusion modifiers in resulfurized steels. Phosphorus in steels has two major effects. It strengthens the ferrite, causing increased hardness. Harder steels result in better chip formation and surface finish. Note that soft steels can be difficult to machine, with built-up edge formation and poor surface finish. The second effect is that increased hardness causes the formation of short chips instead of continuous stringy ones, thereby improving machinability. Leaded Steels. A high percentage of lead in steels solidifies at the tip of manganese sulfide inclusions. In non-resulfurized grades of steel, lead takes the form of dispersed fine particles. Lead is insoluble in iron, copper, and aluminum and their alloys. Because of its low shear strength, therefore, lead acts as a solid lubricant (Section 32.11) and is smeared over the tool-chip interface during cutting. This behavior has been verified by the presence of high concentrations of lead on the tool-side face of chips when machining leaded steels. When the temperature is sufficiently high-for instance, at high cutting speeds and feeds (Section 20.6)—the lead melts directly in front of the tool, acting as a liquid lubricant. In addition to this effect, lead lowers the shear stress in the primary shear zone, reducing cutting forces and power consumption. Lead can be used in every grade of steel, such as 10xx, 11xx, 12xx, 41xx, etc. Leaded steels are identified by the letter L between the second and third numerals (for example, 10L45). (Note that in stainless steels, similar use of the letter L means “l(fā)ow carbon,” a condition that improves their corrosion resistance.) However, because lead is a well-known toxin and a pollutant, there are serious environmental concerns about its use in steels (estimated at 4500 tons of lead consumption every year in the production of steels). Consequently, there is a continuing trend toward eliminating the use of lead in steels (lead-free steels). Bismuth and tin are now being investigated as possible substitutes for lead in steels. Calcium-Deoxidized Steels. An important development is calcium-deoxidized steels, in which oxide flakes of calcium silicates (CaSo) are formed. These flakes, in turn, reduce the strength of the secondary shear zone, decreasing tool-chip interface and wear. Temperature is correspondingly reduced. Consequently, these steels produce less crater wear, especially at high cutting speeds. Stainless Steels. Austenitic (300 series) steels are generally difficult to machine. Chatter can be s problem, necessitating machine tools with high stiffness. However, ferritic stainless steels (also 300 series) have good machinability. Martensitic (400 series) steels are abrasive, tend to form a built-up edge, and require tool materials with high hot hardness and crater-wear resistance. Precipitation-hardening stainless steels are strong and abrasive, requiring hard and abrasion-resistant tool materials. The Effects of Other Elements in Steels on Machinability. The presence of aluminum and silicon in steels is always harmful because these elements combine with oxygen to form aluminum oxide and silicates, which are hard and abrasive. These compounds increase tool wear and reduce machinability. It is essential to produce and use clean steels. Carbon and manganese have various effects on the machinability of steels, depending on their composition. Plain low-carbon steels (less than 0.15% C) can produce poor surface finish by forming a built-up edge. Cast steels are more abrasive, although their machinability is similar to that of wrought steels. Tool and die steels are very difficult to machine and usually require annealing prior to machining. Machinability of most steels is improved by cold working, which hardens the material and reduces the tendency for built-up edge formation. Other alloying elements, such as nickel, chromium, molybdenum, and vanadium, which improve the properties of steels, generally reduce machinability. The effect of boron is negligible. Gaseous elements such as hydrogen and nitrogen can have particularly detrimental effects on the properties of steel. Oxygen has been shown to have a strong effect on the aspect ratio of the manganese sulfide inclusions; the higher the oxygen content, the lower the aspect ratio and the higher the machinability. In selecting various elements to improve machinability, we should consider the possible detrimental effects of these elements on the properties and strength of the machined part in service. At elevated temperatures, for example, lead causes embrittlement of steels (liquid-metal embrittlement, hot shortness; see Section 1.4.3), although at room temperature it has no effect on mechanical properties. Sulfur can severely reduce the hot workability of steels, because of the formation of iron sulfide, unless sufficient manganese is present to prevent such formation. At room temperature, the mechanical properties of resulfurized steels depend on the orientation of the deformed manganese sulfide inclusions (anisotropy). Rephosphorized steels are significantly less ductile, and are produced solely to improve machinability. 2 Machinability of Various Other Metals Aluminum is generally very easy to machine, although the softer grades tend to form a built-up edge, resulting in poor surface finish. High cutting speeds, high rake angles, and high relief angles are recommended. Wrought aluminum alloys with high silicon content and cast aluminum alloys may be abrasive; they require harder tool materials. Dimensional tolerance control may be a problem in machining aluminum, since it has a high thermal coefficient of expansion and a relatively low elastic modulus. Beryllium is similar to cast irons. Because it is more abrasive and toxic, though, it requires machining in a controlled environment. Cast gray irons are generally machinable but are. Free carbides in castings reduce their machinability and cause tool chipping or fracture, necessitating tools with high toughness. Nodular and malleable irons are machinable with hard tool materials. Cobalt-based alloys are abrasive and highly work-hardening. They require sharp, abrasion-resistant tool materials and low feeds and speeds. Wrought copper can be difficult to machine because of built-up edge formation, although cast copper alloys are easy to machine. Brasses are easy to machine, especially with the addition pf lead (leaded free-machining brass). Bronzes are more difficult to machine than brass. Magnesium is very easy to machine, with good surface finish and prolonged tool life. However care should be exercised because of its high rate of oxidation and the danger of fire (the element is pyrophoric). Molybdenum is ductile and work-hardening, so it can produce poor surface finish. Sharp tools are necessary. Nickel-based alloys are work-hardening, abrasive, and strong at high temperatures. Their machinability is similar to that of stainless steels. Tantalum is very work-hardening, ductile, and soft. It produces a poor surface finish; tool wear is high. Titanium and its alloys have poor thermal conductivity (indeed, the lowest of all metals), causing significant temperature rise and built-up edge; they can be difficult to machine. Tungsten is brittle, strong, and very abrasive, so its machinability is low, although it greatly improves at elevated temperatures. Zirconium has good machinability. It requires a coolant-type cutting fluid, however, because of the explosion and fire. 3 Machinability of Various Materials Graphite is abrasive; it requires hard, abrasion-resistant, sharp tools. Thermoplastics generally have low thermal conductivity, low elastic modulus, and low softening temperature. Consequently, machining them requires tools with positive rake angles (to reduce cutting forces), large relief angles, small depths of cut and feed, relatively high speeds, and proper support of the workpiece. Tools should be sharp. External cooling of the cutting zone may be necessary to keep the chips from becoming “gummy” and sticking to the tools. Cooling can usually be achieved with a jet of air, vapor mist, or water-soluble oils. Residual stresses may develop during machining. To relieve these stresses, machined parts can be annealed for a period of time at temperatures ranging from to (to), and then cooled slowly and uniformly to room temperature. Thermosetting plastics are brittle and sensitive to thermal gradients during cutting. Their machinability is generally similar to that of thermoplastics. Because of the fibers present, reinforced plastics are very abrasive and are difficult to machine. Fiber tearing, pulling, and edge delamination are significant problems; they can lead to severe reduction in the load-carrying capacity of the component. Furthermore, machining of these materials requires careful removal of machining debris to avoid contact with and inhaling of the fibers. The machinability of ceramics has improved steadily with the development of nanoceramics (Section 8.2.5) and with the selection of appropriate processing parameters, such as ductile-regime cutting (Section 22.4.2). Metal-matrix and ceramic-matrix composites can be difficult to machine, depending on the properties of the individual components, i.e., reinforcing or whiskers, as well as the matrix material. 4 Thermally Assisted Machining Metals and alloys that are difficult to machine at room temperature can be machined more easily at elevated temperatures. In thermally assisted machining (hot machining), the source of heat—a torch, induction coil, high-energy beam (such as laser or electron beam), or plasma arc—is forces, (b) increased tool life, (c) use of inexpensive cutting-tool materials, (d) higher material-removal rates, and (e) reduced tendency for vibration and chatter. It may be difficult to heat and maintain a uniform temperature distribution within the workpiece. Also, the original microstructure of the workpiece may be adversely affected by elevated temperatures. Most applications of hot machining are in the turning of high-strength metals and alloys, although experiments are in progress to machine ceramics such as silicon nitride. SUMMARY Machinability is usually defined in terms of surface finish, tool life, force and power requirements, and chip control. Machinability of materials depends not only on their intrinsic properties and microstructure, but also on proper selection and control of process variables.  中文譯文 切削性能 材料的切削性能通常取決于四個因素： 1. 表面光潔度和被加工部分的完整性； 2. 刀具的壽命期限； 3. 切削力和切削功率的要求； 4. 切屑的控制。 因此,良好的切削加工性能和良好的表面光潔度、完整性、刀具壽命長、低切削力和切削功率要求。至于切削控制,長而薄(纖細)的切屑,如果不斷開,會使切削區(qū)變得錯綜復(fù)雜，嚴重干擾切削操作。 因為切削操作的復(fù)雜本質(zhì),很難建立關(guān)系去定量地確定一種材料的切削加工性能。在生產(chǎn)基地、刀具壽命和表面粗糙度通常被認為是影響切削性能的最重要的因素。雖然無法更進一步證明,但是下面的例子都能夠近似劃分切削性能等級。 1鋼的切削性能 因為鋼是最重要的工程材料之一(正如在第5章),他們的切削加工性能已經(jīng)研究得很透徹了。其主要是通過增加鉛、硫提高了鋼的切削加工性能，得到所謂的易切削鋼。 加硫鋼和回磷鋼。 硫化錳夾雜物在鋼中形成(二相粒子),在剪切帶中產(chǎn)生應(yīng)力集中。結(jié)果,產(chǎn)生的切屑很容易斷裂而且都很小,這樣就可以改善切削性能。在大小、形狀、分布等方面,這些夾雜物的濃度顯著影響切削性能。碲和硒等元素,這都是類似硫磺化學(xué)物品,作為加硫鋼中的夾雜物 在鋼中磷有兩個非常重要的影響。加強鐵素體,導(dǎo)致硬度增加。更好的切屑形成和表面光潔度導(dǎo)致更硬的鋼。注意, 由于切邊碎粒和低表面光潔度的影響，低碳鋼很難加工,。第二個原因是增加硬度影響而形成、短而不是連續(xù)的切削,從而提高切削性能。 鉛鋼。相當(dāng)高比例的錳硫化物雜質(zhì)凝固在鉛鋼的頂端。在不經(jīng)過硫處理的鋼、鉛以分散的形式行程精細顆粒。鉛是不溶于鐵、銅、鋁及其合金的。因為其較低的剪切強度,因此,作為一個領(lǐng)先的固體潤滑劑(32.11節(jié)),涂在切割時切屑界面。這種行為被證實當(dāng)加工鉛鋼時切屑上的表面存在高濃度的鉛。 當(dāng)溫度足夠高時,比如說,在高切削速度和進給量(20.6節(jié))-正前方熔化的鉛,成為工具的液體潤滑劑。除了這一效果,還降低了鉛在主要剪切帶的剪切應(yīng)力、降低切削力等和功耗。鉛可以使用于每一個等級的鋼,如10 xx,xx,xx,十二11 41 xx,等。鉛鋼確認是印刷在第二個和第三個數(shù)字之間(例如,10 L45)。(注意:不銹鋼、一樣用這封信的L的意思是“低碳,”一個條件,那就是提高他們的耐腐蝕性。) 當(dāng)溫度足夠高時—例如，在高的切削速度和進刀速度下—鉛在刀具前直接熔化，并且充當(dāng)液體潤滑劑。除了這個作用，鉛降低第一剪切區(qū)中的剪應(yīng)力，減小切削力和功率消耗。鉛能用于各種鋼號，例如10XX，11XX，12XX，41XX等等。鉛鋼被第二和第三數(shù)碼中的字母L所識別（例如，10L45）。（需要注意的是在不銹鋼中，字母L的相同用法指的是低碳，提高它們的耐蝕性的條件）。 然而，因為鉛是有名的毒素和污染物，因此在鋼的使用中存在著嚴重的環(huán)境隱患（在鋼產(chǎn)品中每年大約有4500噸的鉛消耗）。結(jié)果，對于估算鋼中含鉛量的使用存在一個持續(xù)的趨勢。鉍和錫現(xiàn)正作為鋼中的鉛最可能的替代物而被人們所研究。 脫氧鈣鋼 一個重要的發(fā)展是脫氧鈣鋼，在脫氧鈣鋼中矽酸鈣鹽中的氧化物片的形成。這些片狀，依次減小第二剪切區(qū)中的力量，降低刀具和切屑接口處的摩擦和磨損。溫度也相應(yīng)地降低。結(jié)果，這些鋼產(chǎn)生更小的月牙洼磨損，特別是在高切削速度時更是如此。 不銹鋼 奧氏體鋼通常很難機加工。振動能成為一個問題，需要有高硬度的機床。然而，鐵素體不銹鋼有很好的可機加工性。馬氏體鋼易磨蝕，易于形成積屑瘤，并且要求刀具材料有高的熱硬度和耐月牙洼磨損性。經(jīng)沉淀硬化的不銹鋼強度高、磨蝕性強，因此要求刀具材料硬而耐磨。 鋼中其它元素在可機加工性方面的影響 鋼中鋁和矽的存在總是有害的，因為這些元素結(jié)合氧會生成氧化鋁和矽酸鹽，而氧化鋁和矽酸鹽硬且具有磨蝕性。這些化合物增加刀具磨損，降低可機加工性。因此生產(chǎn)和使用凈化鋼非常必要。 根據(jù)它們的構(gòu)成，碳和錳鋼在鋼的可機加工性方面有不同的影響。低碳素鋼（少于0.15%的碳）通過形成一個積屑瘤能生成很差的表面光潔性。盡管鑄鋼的可機加工性和鍛鋼的大致相同，但鑄鋼具有更大的磨蝕性。刀具和模具鋼很難用于機加工，他們通常再煅燒后再機加工。大多數(shù)鋼的可機加工性在冷加工后都有所提高，冷加工能使材料變硬并且減少積屑瘤的形成。 其它合金元素，例如鎳、鉻、鉗和釩，能提高鋼的特性，減小可機加工性。硼的影響可以忽視。氣態(tài)元素比如氫和氮在鋼的特性方面能有特別的有害影響。氧已經(jīng)被證明了在硫化錳夾雜物的縱橫比方面有很強的影響。越高的含氧量，就產(chǎn)生越低的縱橫比和越高的可機加工性。 選擇各種元素以改善可加工性，我們應(yīng)該考慮到這些元素對已加工零件在使用中的性能和強度的不利影響。例如，當(dāng)溫度升高時，鋁會使鋼變脆（液體—金屬脆化，熱脆化，見1.4.3節(jié)），盡管其在室溫下對力學(xué)性能沒有影響。 因為硫化鐵的構(gòu)成，硫能嚴重的減少鋼的熱加工性，除非有足夠的錳來防止這種結(jié)構(gòu)的形成。在室溫下，二次磷化鋼的機械性能依賴于變形的硫化錳夾雜物的定位（各向異性）。二次磷化鋼具有更小的延展性，被單獨生成來提高機加工性。 2 其它不同金屬的機加工性 盡管越軟的品種易于生成積屑瘤，但鋁通常很容易被機加工，導(dǎo)致了很差的表面光潔性。高的切削速度，高的前角和高的后角都被推薦了。有高含量的矽的鍛鋁合金鑄鋁合金也許具有磨蝕性，它們要求更硬的刀具材料。尺寸公差控制也許在機加工鋁時會成為一個問題，因為它有膨脹的高導(dǎo)熱系數(shù)和相對低的彈性模數(shù)。 鈹和鑄鐵相同。因為它更具磨蝕性和毒性，盡管它要求在可控人工環(huán)境下進行機加工。 灰鑄鐵普遍地可加工，但也有磨蝕性。鑄造無中的游離碳化物降低它們的可機加工性，引起刀具切屑或裂口。它需要具有強韌性的工具。具有堅硬的刀具材料的球墨鑄鐵和韌性鐵是可加工的。 鈷基合金有磨蝕性且高度加工硬化的。它們要求尖的且具有耐蝕性的刀具材料并且有低的走刀和速度。 盡管鑄銅合金很容易機加工，但因為鍛銅的積屑瘤形成因而鍛銅很難機加工。黃銅很容易機加工，特別是有添加的鉛更容易。青銅比黃銅更難機加工。 鎂很容易機加工，鎂既有很好的表面光潔性和長久的刀具壽命。然而，因為高的氧化速度和火種的危險（這種元素易燃），因此我們應(yīng)該特別小心使用它。 鉗易拉長且加工硬化，因此它生成很差的表面光潔性。尖的刀具是很必要的。 鎳基合金加工硬化，具有磨蝕性，且在高溫下非常堅硬。它的可機加工性和不銹鋼相同。 鉭非常的加工硬化，具有可延性且柔軟。它生成很差的表面光潔性且刀具磨損非常大。 鈦和它的合金導(dǎo)熱性(的確，是所有金屬中最低的)，因此引起明顯的溫度升高和積屑瘤。它們是難機加工的。 鎢易脆，堅硬，且具有磨蝕性，因此盡管它的性能在高溫下能大大提高，但它的機加工性仍很低。 鋯有很好的機加工性。然而，因為有爆炸和火種的危險性，它要求有一個冷卻性質(zhì)好的切削液。 3 各種材料的機加工性 石墨具有磨蝕性。它要求硬的、尖的，具有耐蝕性的刀具。 塑性塑料通常有低的導(dǎo)熱性，低的彈性模數(shù)和低的軟化溫度。因此，機加工熱塑性塑料要求有正前角的刀具（以此降低切削力），還要求有大的后角，小的切削和走刀深的，相對高的速度和工件的正確支承。刀具應(yīng)該很尖。 切削區(qū)的外部冷卻也許很必要，以此來防止切屑變的有黏性且粘在刀具上。有了空氣流，汽霧或水溶性油，通常就能實現(xiàn)冷卻。在機加工時，殘余應(yīng)力也許能生成并發(fā)展。為了解除這些力，已加工的部分要在（）的溫度范圍內(nèi)冷卻一段時間，然而慢慢地?zé)o變化地冷卻到室溫。 熱固性塑料易脆，并且在切削時對熱梯度很敏感。它的機加工性和熱塑性塑料的相同。 因為纖維的存在，加強塑料具有磨蝕性，且很難機加工。纖維的撕裂、拉出和邊界分層是非常嚴重的問題。它們能導(dǎo)致構(gòu)成要素的承載能力大大下降。而且，這些材料的機加工要求對加工殘片仔細切除，以此來避免接觸和吸進纖維。 隨著納米陶瓷（見8.2.5節(jié)）的發(fā)展和適當(dāng)?shù)膮?shù)處理的選擇，例如塑性切削（見22.4.2節(jié)），陶瓷器的可機加工性已大大地提高了。 金屬基復(fù)合材料和陶瓷基復(fù)合材料很能機加工，它們依賴于單獨的成分的特性，比如說增強纖維或金屬須和基體材料。 4 熱輔助加工 在室溫下很難機加工的金屬和合金在高溫下能更容易地機加工。在熱輔助加工時（高溫切削），熱源—一個火把，感應(yīng)線圈，高能束流（例如雷射或電子束），或等離子弧—被集中在切削刀具前的一塊區(qū)域內(nèi)。好處是：（a）低的切削力。（b）增加的刀具壽命。（c）便宜的切削刀具材料的使用。（d）更高的材料切除率。（e）減少振動。 也許很難在工件內(nèi)加熱和保持一個不變的溫度分布。而且，工件的最初微觀結(jié)構(gòu)也許被高溫影響，且這種影響是相當(dāng)有害的。盡管實驗在進行中，以此來機加工陶瓷器如氮化矽，但高溫切削仍大多數(shù)應(yīng)用在高強度金屬和高溫度合金的車削中。 小結(jié) 通常，零件的可機加工性能是根據(jù)以下因素來定義的：表面粗糙度，刀具的壽命，切削力和功率的需求以及切屑的控制。材料的可機加工性能不僅取決于起內(nèi)在特性和微觀結(jié)構(gòu)，而且也依賴于工藝參數(shù)的適當(dāng)選擇與控制。 20