分功率殼體臥式雙面鉆孔專用機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì)說(shuō)明書,功率,殼體,臥式,雙面,鉆孔,專用,機(jī)床,設(shè)計(jì),說(shuō)明書,仿單 分功率殼體臥式雙面鉆孔專用機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì) 目 錄 引言…………………………………………………………………………………4 第一章 通用部件簡(jiǎn)介 ………………………………………………………6 1.通用部件的分類 …………………………………………………………6 2.動(dòng)力部件…………………………………………………………………6 3.支承部件…………………………………………………………………7 4.控制部件…………………………………………………………………8 5.輔助部件…………………………………………………………………8 第二章 組合機(jī)床的總體設(shè)計(jì)的步驟……………………………………8 1組合機(jī)床工藝方案的制定………………………………………………8 2確定切削用量及選擇刀具………………………………………………9 3組合機(jī)床總體設(shè)計(jì)—三圖一卡…………………………………………10 第三章組合機(jī)床多軸箱設(shè)計(jì)………………………………………………12 1概述………………………………………………………………………12 2設(shè)計(jì)原則…………………………………………………………………14 第四章夾具的設(shè)計(jì) 1定位基準(zhǔn)的選擇………………………………………………………15 2 夾緊力的計(jì)算…………………………………………………………15 第五章液壓原理圖……………………………………………………16 1液壓傳動(dòng)圖……………………………………………………………16 第六章PLC梯形圖……………………………………………………16 1 工作原理及電氣控制要求…………………………………………16 2 電氣控制系統(tǒng)硬件設(shè)計(jì)……………………………………………16 3.電氣控制系統(tǒng)軟件設(shè)計(jì)……………………………………………17 結(jié)論……………………………………………………………………17 致謝……………………………………………………………………18 參考文獻(xiàn)………………………………………………………………18 附錄A 綜述 附錄B 調(diào)研報(bào)告 附錄C 外文翻譯 附錄D 原文 引言 組合機(jī)床是一種自動(dòng)化或半自動(dòng)化的機(jī)床.無(wú)論是機(jī)械電氣或液壓電氣控制的都能實(shí)現(xiàn)自動(dòng)循環(huán).半自動(dòng)化的組合機(jī)床,工人只要將工件裝夾好,按一下按鈕,機(jī)床即可自動(dòng)進(jìn)行加工,加工一個(gè)循環(huán)停止.自動(dòng)化的組合機(jī)床,工人只要將工件放到料斗或上料架上,機(jī)床即可連續(xù)不斷的進(jìn)行工作.我國(guó)傳統(tǒng)的組合機(jī)床及組合機(jī)床自動(dòng)線主要采用機(jī)、電、氣、液壓控制,它的加工對(duì)象主要是生產(chǎn)批量比較大的大中型箱體類和軸類零件(近年研制的組合機(jī)床加工連桿、板件等也占一定份額) ,完成鉆孔、擴(kuò)孔、鉸孔,加工各種螺紋、鏜孔、車端面和凸臺(tái),在孔內(nèi)鏜各種形狀槽,以及銑削平面和成形面等。組合機(jī)床的分類繁多,有大型組合機(jī)床和小型組合機(jī)床,有單面、雙面、三面、臥式、立式、傾斜式、復(fù)合式,還有多工位回轉(zhuǎn)臺(tái)式組合機(jī)床等;隨著技術(shù)的不斷進(jìn)步,一種新型的組合機(jī)床———柔性組合機(jī)床越來(lái)越受到人們的青睞,它應(yīng)用多位主軸箱、可換主軸箱、編碼隨行夾具和刀具的自動(dòng)更換,配以可編程序控制器( PLC) 、數(shù)字控制(NC) 等,能任意改變工作循環(huán)控制和驅(qū)動(dòng)系統(tǒng),并能靈活適應(yīng)多品種加工的可調(diào)可變的組合機(jī)床。另外,近年來(lái)組合機(jī)床加工中心、數(shù)控組合機(jī)床、機(jī)床輔機(jī)(清洗機(jī)、裝配機(jī)、綜合測(cè)量機(jī)、試驗(yàn)機(jī)、輸送線) 等在組合機(jī)床行業(yè)中所占份額也越來(lái)越大。由于組合機(jī)床及其自動(dòng)線是一種技術(shù)綜合性很高的高技術(shù)專用產(chǎn)品,是根據(jù)用戶特殊要求而設(shè)計(jì)的,它涉及到加工工藝、刀具、測(cè)量、控制、診斷監(jiān)控、清洗、裝配和試漏等技術(shù)。我國(guó)組合機(jī)床組合機(jī)床自動(dòng)線總體技術(shù)水平比發(fā)達(dá)國(guó)家要相對(duì)落后,國(guó)內(nèi)所需的一些高水平組合機(jī)床及自動(dòng)線幾乎都從國(guó)外進(jìn)口。工藝裝備的大量進(jìn)口勢(shì)必導(dǎo)致投資規(guī)模的擴(kuò)大,并使產(chǎn)品生產(chǎn)成本提高。因此,市場(chǎng)要求我們不斷開發(fā)新技術(shù)、新工藝,研制新產(chǎn)品,由過(guò)去的“剛性”機(jī)床結(jié)構(gòu),向“柔性”化方向發(fā)展,滿足用戶需求,真正成為剛?cè)峒鎮(zhèn)涞淖詣?dòng)化裝備。隨著市場(chǎng)競(jìng)爭(zhēng)的加劇和對(duì)產(chǎn)品需求的提高,高精度、高生產(chǎn)率、柔性化、多品種、短周期、數(shù)控組合機(jī)床及其自動(dòng)線正在沖擊著傳統(tǒng)的組合機(jī)床行業(yè)企業(yè),因此組合機(jī)床裝備的發(fā)展思路必須是以提高組合機(jī)床加工精度、組合機(jī)床柔性、組合機(jī)床工作可靠性和組合機(jī)床技術(shù)的成套性為主攻方向。一方面,加強(qiáng)數(shù)控技術(shù)的應(yīng)用,提高組合機(jī)床產(chǎn)品數(shù)控化率;另一方面,進(jìn)一步發(fā)展新型部件,尤其是多坐標(biāo)部件,使其模塊化、柔性化,適應(yīng)可調(diào)可變、多品種加工的市場(chǎng)需求。從2002 年年底第21 屆日本國(guó)際機(jī)床博覽會(huì)上獲悉,在來(lái)自世界10 多個(gè)國(guó)家和地區(qū)的500 多家機(jī)床制造商和團(tuán)體展示的最先進(jìn)機(jī)床設(shè)備中,超高速和超高精度加工技術(shù)裝備與復(fù)合、多功能、多軸化控制設(shè)備等深受歡迎。據(jù)專家分析,機(jī)床裝備的高速和超高速加工技術(shù)的關(guān)鍵是提高機(jī)床的主軸轉(zhuǎn)速和進(jìn)給速度。該屆博覽會(huì)上展出的加工中心,主軸轉(zhuǎn)速10 000～20 000 r/ min ,最高進(jìn)給速度可達(dá)20～60 m/ min ;復(fù)合、多功能、多軸化控制裝備的前景亦被看好。在零部件一體化程度不斷提高、數(shù)量減少的同時(shí),加工的形狀卻日益復(fù)雜。多軸化控制的機(jī)床裝備適合加工形狀復(fù)雜的工件。另外,產(chǎn)品周期的縮短也要求加工機(jī)床能夠隨時(shí)調(diào)整和適應(yīng)新的變化,滿足各種各樣產(chǎn)品的加工需求。然而更關(guān)鍵的是現(xiàn)代通信技術(shù)在機(jī)床裝備中的應(yīng)用,信息通信技術(shù)的引進(jìn)使得現(xiàn)代機(jī)床的自動(dòng)化程度進(jìn)一步提高,操作者可以通過(guò)網(wǎng)絡(luò)或手機(jī)對(duì)機(jī)床的程序進(jìn)行遠(yuǎn)程修改,對(duì)運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)狀況進(jìn)行監(jiān)控并積累有關(guān)數(shù)據(jù);通過(guò)網(wǎng)絡(luò)對(duì)遠(yuǎn)程的設(shè)備進(jìn)行維修和檢查、提供售后服務(wù)等。在這些方面我國(guó)組合機(jī)床裝備還有相當(dāng)大的差距,因此我國(guó)組合機(jī)床技術(shù)裝備高速度、高精度、柔性化、模塊化、可調(diào)可變、任意加工性以及通信技術(shù)的應(yīng)用將是今后的發(fā)展方向。 第一章 通用部件簡(jiǎn)介 1.通用部件的分類 1.1. 通用部件已列為國(guó)家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，并等效為國(guó)際標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，設(shè)計(jì)時(shí)應(yīng)貫徹執(zhí)行國(guó)家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。我國(guó)有些企業(yè)有內(nèi)部標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，但其主要技術(shù)參數(shù)及部件和聯(lián)系尺寸必須統(tǒng)一執(zhí)行國(guó)家標(biāo)準(zhǔn)，以實(shí)現(xiàn)部件通用化標(biāo)準(zhǔn)。 2.動(dòng)力部件 2.1動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)是由滑座、滑鞍和驅(qū)動(dòng)裝置等組成，是實(shí)現(xiàn)組合機(jī)床直線進(jìn)給運(yùn)動(dòng)的動(dòng)力部件。 動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)的用途：根據(jù)被加工工件的工藝要求，可以在滑臺(tái)上安裝動(dòng)力箱、鉆削頭、銑削頭和鏜孔車端面頭等各種部件，以完成對(duì)工件的鉆孔、擴(kuò)孔、鉸孔、螳孔、倒角、削端面、車端面、銑削及攻絲等工序，有時(shí)也作為輸送部件使用，配置多工位組合機(jī)床。 2.2TD系列動(dòng)力箱的用途 動(dòng)力箱是將電動(dòng)機(jī)的動(dòng)力傳遞給多軸箱的動(dòng)力部件。動(dòng)力箱安裝在滑臺(tái)或其它進(jìn)給部件的結(jié)合面上，動(dòng)力箱前端結(jié)合面上安裝多軸箱，動(dòng)力箱的輸出軸驅(qū)動(dòng)動(dòng)力箱的每個(gè)主軸及傳動(dòng)軸，使多軸箱完成各種工藝切削運(yùn)動(dòng)。1DT系列動(dòng)力箱分兩種：第一種根據(jù)用于配置小型組合機(jī)床，其型號(hào)為1DT121DT25，本規(guī)格的動(dòng)力箱輸出軸有兩種傳動(dòng)形式，I型用輸出軸安裝的平鍵，齒輪輸出轉(zhuǎn)矩；II型用輸出軸端面鍵輸出轉(zhuǎn)矩。第二種動(dòng)力箱用于配置大型組合機(jī)床，其規(guī)格為1DT321DT80，其輸出軸只有平鍵，齒輪一種輸出轉(zhuǎn)矩的形式。液壓滑臺(tái)：1HY系列液壓滑臺(tái)；1HYA系列長(zhǎng)臺(tái)面型液壓滑臺(tái)；1HYS系列液壓十字滑臺(tái)。機(jī)械滑臺(tái)：1HJ系列機(jī)械滑臺(tái)；1HJC系列機(jī)械滑臺(tái)；NC-1HJ系列交流伺服數(shù)機(jī)械滑臺(tái)。 3.支承部件 組合機(jī)床支承部件包括中間底座，側(cè)底座，立柱，立柱底座，支架及墊塊等。支承部件主要用來(lái)安裝動(dòng)力部件及其它工作部件是組合機(jī)床的基礎(chǔ)部件。支承部件應(yīng)用于足夠的剛度，以保證各部件之間相對(duì)位置精度長(zhǎng)期正確，從而保證組合機(jī)床的加工精度。組合機(jī)床的支承部件采用組合式，例如：臥式組合機(jī)床的床身，由中間底座與側(cè)底座裝配而成，而立式組合機(jī)床的床身由立柱及立柱底座裝配而成。此種裝配結(jié)構(gòu)優(yōu)點(diǎn)是加工和裝配工藝性好，調(diào)整和運(yùn)輸比較方便。但是，組合式結(jié)構(gòu)減弱了床身的整體剛性，這一缺點(diǎn)通常用加強(qiáng)部件之間的連接剛度來(lái)補(bǔ)償。 3.1.1CC系列滑臺(tái)側(cè)底座 1CC系列滑臺(tái)側(cè)底座用于安裝1HY系列液壓滑臺(tái)及各種機(jī)械滑臺(tái)側(cè)底座長(zhǎng)度按滑臺(tái)行程長(zhǎng)度分型并與其配套。滑座安裝在側(cè)底座上，側(cè)底座與中間底座用螺釘及銷（或鍵）連接成一體，滑臺(tái)與側(cè)底座之間裝有5mm厚的調(diào)整墊。采用調(diào)整墊鐵對(duì)機(jī)床的制造和維修都方便。因?yàn)楫?dāng)滑座導(dǎo)軌磨損后，或重新組裝機(jī)床時(shí)，只須取下滑臺(tái)將導(dǎo)軌面重新修刮或修磨，再重新更換調(diào)整墊厚度，可使機(jī)床達(dá)到應(yīng)有精度。 側(cè)底座的頂面具有與滑座結(jié)合的平面外在其周圍有收集冷卻液或潤(rùn)滑油用的溝槽，用管道將油液引回存儲(chǔ)槽中，側(cè)底座的另一側(cè)面有電氣壁盒，以供安裝電器元件用。一般電器壁盒與冷卻液存儲(chǔ)箱不應(yīng)靠近，以防電氣元件潮濕。為了便于支承部件及整臺(tái)機(jī)床運(yùn)輸，側(cè)底座應(yīng)用走絲吊孔或吊環(huán)螺釘孔及放入撬杠用的底面凹槽。 4.控制部件 控制部件用來(lái)控制組合機(jī)床行動(dòng)循環(huán)。 5.輔助部件 除上述部件外的部件稱輔助部件，主要指用于潤(rùn)滑、冷卻和排屑等部件。 第二章 組合機(jī)床的總體設(shè)計(jì)的步驟 1組合機(jī)床工藝方案的制定 雙面鉆孔組合機(jī)床是在工件兩相對(duì)表面上鉆孔的一種高效率自動(dòng)化專用加工設(shè)備。機(jī)床的兩個(gè)液壓動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)對(duì)面布置,左、右刀具電動(dòng)機(jī)分別固定在兩邊的滑臺(tái)上,中間底座上裝有工件定位夾緊裝置。組合機(jī)床的總體設(shè)計(jì)通常是根據(jù)與用戶簽定的和同和協(xié)議書，針對(duì)具體加工零件，擬訂工藝和結(jié)構(gòu)方案，并進(jìn)行方案圖樣和有關(guān)技術(shù)文件的設(shè)計(jì)。根據(jù)工藝方案確定機(jī)床的型式和總體布局。在選擇機(jī)床配置型式時(shí)，既考慮到實(shí)現(xiàn)工藝方案，保證加工精度、技術(shù)要求及生產(chǎn)率，又考慮到機(jī)床操作、維護(hù)、修理和排屑的方便性。在選擇組合鉆床結(jié)構(gòu)方案時(shí)，必須保證穩(wěn)定的加工精度。固定式夾具組合鉆床能達(dá)到的鉆孔位置精度最高，采用固定導(dǎo)套一般能達(dá)± 0.20mm?？紤]到操作的方便性，需要合理確定裝料高度為使鉆床在溫度過(guò)高時(shí)工作性能穩(wěn)定，而且由于被加工件不需多次進(jìn)給，故選用機(jī)械通用部件配置鉆床。根據(jù)被加工零件的特點(diǎn),為實(shí)現(xiàn)加工精度要求,同時(shí)考慮到經(jīng)濟(jì)效益和生產(chǎn)率,經(jīng)過(guò)反復(fù)論證、分析和計(jì)算,我們采用了臥式雙面多軸鉆、組合機(jī)床的總體設(shè)計(jì)方案。本機(jī)床采用多工位臥式組合機(jī)床,變速箱體裝在工作臺(tái)的夾具上,這樣便于上、下料。機(jī)床機(jī)械部分主要有:底座、側(cè)底座、多軸箱、刀具、夾具、冷卻系統(tǒng);控制部分為PLC 控制系統(tǒng)及液壓傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)。機(jī)床的工作循環(huán)為:人工裝上一工件,定位銷插銷定位→夾緊油缸夾緊→I 滑臺(tái)開始工作循環(huán):快進(jìn)(冷卻供、主軸轉(zhuǎn)) →工進(jìn)(死檔鐵停留) →快退至原位(主軸停) 滑臺(tái)開始工作循環(huán):快進(jìn)(冷卻供、主軸轉(zhuǎn)) →工進(jìn)(死檔鐵停留) →快退至原位(主軸停、冷卻停) ,定位銷拔出,夾緊油缸松開,防護(hù)門自動(dòng)打開,油缸推出工件,工件到位后油缸退回 ,死檔鐵停留,工作循環(huán)結(jié)束 2確定切削用量及選擇刀具 切削用量選擇是否合理，對(duì)組合機(jī)床的加工精度、生產(chǎn)率、刀具的耐用度、機(jī)床的布局及正常工作均有很大的影響。 組合機(jī)床切削用量的選擇特點(diǎn)： 2.1.在大多數(shù)情況下，組合機(jī)床為多軸，多刀，多面同時(shí)加工，因此切削用量，根據(jù)經(jīng)驗(yàn)應(yīng)比一般萬(wàn)能機(jī)床單刀加工低30%左右。 2.2.組合機(jī)床多軸箱下，所有刀具共用一個(gè)進(jìn)給系統(tǒng)，通常為標(biāo)準(zhǔn)動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)，工作時(shí)，要求所以的刀具的每分鐘進(jìn)給量相同，且等于動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)的分鐘進(jìn)給量。由于工件材料：HT200 壁厚：2.510 HBS：157236 =220 查《工藝師手冊(cè)》鉆孔切削速度查得：鑄鐵：v=16~24m/min.取v=20m/min,f=0.15/0.12mm/r 3.三圖一卡設(shè)計(jì) 3.1.加工示意圖 加工示意圖的作用和內(nèi)容 零件的加工工藝方案要通過(guò)加工示意圖反映出來(lái)，加工示意圖表示被加工零件在機(jī)床尚的加工過(guò)程，刀具輔具的布置狀況以及工件，夾具，刀具等機(jī)床各部件間的相對(duì)位置關(guān)系，機(jī)床的工作行程及工作循環(huán)等。因此，加工示意圖是組合機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì)的主要圖紙之一。在總體設(shè)計(jì)中占據(jù)重要地位。它是刀具，輔具，夾具，多軸箱，液壓電氣裝置設(shè)計(jì)及通用部件選擇的主要原始資料；也是整臺(tái)組合機(jī)床布局和性能的原始要求，同時(shí)還是調(diào)整機(jī)床刀具及成車的依據(jù)，其內(nèi)容為： （1）應(yīng)反映機(jī)床的加工方法，加工條件及加工過(guò)程。 （2）根據(jù)加工部位特點(diǎn)及加工要求，決定刀具類型，數(shù)量，結(jié)構(gòu)，尺寸（直徑 和長(zhǎng)度），包括鏜削加工是膛桿直徑和長(zhǎng)度。 （3）決定主軸的結(jié)構(gòu)類型，規(guī)格尺寸及外伸長(zhǎng)度。 （4）選擇標(biāo)準(zhǔn)或設(shè)計(jì)專用的接桿，浮動(dòng)卡頭，導(dǎo)向裝置，攻絲靠模裝置，刀桿 托架等，并決定它們的結(jié)構(gòu)參數(shù)及尺寸。 （5）標(biāo)明主軸，接桿，夾具（導(dǎo)向）與工件之間的聯(lián)系尺寸，配合及精度。 （6）根據(jù)機(jī)床要求的生產(chǎn)率及刀具，材料特點(diǎn)等，合理正確定并標(biāo)注各主軸的 切削用量。 3.2被加工零件工序圖 被加工零件為分功率器殼體，材料為H200，工序?yàn)橄潴w兩端面鉆孔，左端面為12個(gè)10加工孔和8個(gè)6，右端面為6個(gè)10和8個(gè)6加工孔。采用一面兩孔定位，一面為箱體底面，兩孔為底面上的長(zhǎng)邊上的兩孔。采用箱體頂面夾緊。 3.3加工示意圖 加工10的孔： 錐柄長(zhǎng)麻花鉆 硬質(zhì)合金 d=10mm L=168mm L1=87mm 依據(jù)公式 M= ， 選剛性主軸，直徑為30/20mm 外伸長(zhǎng)度為115 mm 切削用量 v=20 m/min f=0.15 mm/r 加工6的孔： 錐柄麻花鉆 硬質(zhì)合金 d=6mm L=138 mm L1=57`mm 依據(jù)公式 M= 選剛性主軸，直徑為22/14mm 外伸長(zhǎng)度為115 mm 切削用量 v=30m/min f=0.15 mm/r 箱體左端面工進(jìn)長(zhǎng)度35 mm 快進(jìn)85mm 快退120 mm 箱體右端面工進(jìn)長(zhǎng)度35 mm 快進(jìn) 85mm 快退120 mm 3.4機(jī)床聯(lián)系尺寸圖 左端面：20根主軸 右端面:14根主軸 多軸箱輪廓尺寸 H=336+100+100=536 mm B=400+2100=600 mm 厚度取325 mm長(zhǎng)寬取630630 mm 最低孔位置44mm 最低主軸高度100 mm 軸向力==1371.2N 轉(zhuǎn)矩 ==7282.4Nmm 功率 ==0.274kw 18=4.932kw 18=19745.28N 根據(jù)以上計(jì)算所得 選取液壓動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)1HY40 動(dòng)力箱1TD40-IIA （7.5kw）電機(jī) Y132M-4 側(cè)底座 1CC401 3.5機(jī)床生產(chǎn)率計(jì)算卡 機(jī)床負(fù)荷率等。根據(jù)選定得機(jī)床工作循環(huán)所需要的工作行程長(zhǎng)度，切削用量，動(dòng)力部件的速度及工進(jìn)速度等；就可以計(jì)算機(jī)床的生產(chǎn)率并編制生產(chǎn)率計(jì)算卡；用以反映機(jī)床的加工過(guò)程；完成每一動(dòng)作所需的時(shí)間，切削用量，機(jī)床生產(chǎn)率等 (1)機(jī)床生產(chǎn)效率計(jì)算卡 1. 理想生產(chǎn)率 ==23 件/h 2. 實(shí)際生產(chǎn)率 =31件/h 3. 機(jī)床負(fù)荷率 =0.75 第三章組合機(jī)床多軸箱設(shè)計(jì) 1.概述 組合機(jī)床多軸箱的設(shè)計(jì)計(jì)算是組合機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì)工程中的重要環(huán)節(jié)，是主軸箱零部件設(shè)計(jì)的理論基礎(chǔ)，計(jì)算稍有不慎，便會(huì)導(dǎo)致后期的設(shè)計(jì)制造前功盡棄。依據(jù)總體設(shè)計(jì)圖， 對(duì)主軸箱進(jìn)行結(jié)構(gòu)創(chuàng)新設(shè)計(jì)。由于在本機(jī)床上需同時(shí)加工12個(gè)孔，不僅孔多、間距小，而且孔的排列分散，采用通常方案排箱無(wú)法實(shí)現(xiàn)12孔的工序集中。因此，本鉆床的主軸箱傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)在對(duì)被加工零件進(jìn)行了深入、細(xì)致分析計(jì)算的基礎(chǔ)上，通過(guò)采用滾針軸承，將常規(guī)狀況下不能完成的排箱得以實(shí)現(xiàn)，而且所設(shè)計(jì)的主軸箱結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊。（該設(shè)計(jì)只設(shè)計(jì)左面多軸箱的結(jié)構(gòu)，右面多軸箱類似）依據(jù)組合鉆床總體設(shè)計(jì)繪制主軸箱設(shè)計(jì)原始依據(jù)圖其內(nèi)容為主軸箱設(shè)計(jì)的原始要求和已知條件： 1. 主軸箱輪廓尺寸630mm×630mm； 2. 工件輪廓尺寸及各孔位置尺寸 主軸及通用傳動(dòng)軸結(jié)構(gòu)型式的選擇方案 主軸結(jié)構(gòu)型式由零件的加工工藝決定，并考慮主軸的工作條件和受力情況，采用長(zhǎng)主軸。由于采用鉆削加工主軸，需承受較大的單向軸向力，所以優(yōu)選向心球軸承和推力球軸承組合的支承結(jié)構(gòu)，且推力球軸承配置在主軸前端。傳動(dòng)軸的轉(zhuǎn)速較低，但載荷較大，因此用圓錐滾子軸承。按上述方案配置的主軸和傳動(dòng)軸，按所選的軸承類型繪制軸承孔檢查圖，發(fā)現(xiàn)有些部位采用此配置因孔間距較小，箱體上的軸承座孔太大，導(dǎo)致箱體強(qiáng)度不夠。因此，這些部位都將原方案改為推力球軸承與滾針軸承組合的支承結(jié)構(gòu)，以減小徑向尺寸，滿足強(qiáng)度要求，實(shí)現(xiàn)合理排箱。 按以上原則設(shè)計(jì)的傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)，保證了主軸箱的質(zhì)量，提高了主軸箱的通用化程度，使得設(shè)計(jì)和制造工作量及成本都大大降低。為實(shí)現(xiàn)本機(jī)床“體積小、質(zhì)量輕、結(jié)構(gòu)簡(jiǎn)單、使用方便、效率高、質(zhì)量好”的設(shè)計(jì)目標(biāo)奠定了基礎(chǔ)。 2.設(shè)計(jì)原則 1) 從面對(duì)主軸的方位看去，所有主軸均采用逆時(shí)針?lè)较蛐D(zhuǎn)。 2) 在保證轉(zhuǎn)速和轉(zhuǎn)向的前提下，力求用最少的傳動(dòng)軸和齒輪（數(shù)量和規(guī)格），以減少各類零件的品種。具體措施：采用一根傳動(dòng)軸同時(shí)帶動(dòng)多根主軸，并將齒輪布置在同一排位置上，當(dāng)齒輪嚙合中 心距不符合標(biāo)準(zhǔn)時(shí)，采用了變位齒輪。 3) 放棄了用主軸帶主軸的方案，這樣避免了增加主軸負(fù)荷，不會(huì)影響加工質(zhì)量。 4) 為使主軸箱結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊，主軸箱內(nèi)齒輪傳動(dòng)副的傳動(dòng)比都在1.0~1.5之間。 5) 為了使主軸上的齒輪不太大，有的在最后一級(jí)采用升速傳動(dòng)。 6) 因鉆削加工切削力大，為了減少主軸的扭曲變形，主軸上的齒輪盡量靠近前支承。 對(duì)傳動(dòng)系統(tǒng)的一般要求 1) 盡量用一根中間軸帶動(dòng)很多根主軸,當(dāng)齒輪齒合中心距不符合標(biāo)準(zhǔn)時(shí),可用變位齒輪或略變傳動(dòng)比的方法解決. 2) 一般情況下,盡量不采用主軸帶動(dòng)主軸的方案,因?yàn)闀?huì)增加主動(dòng)軸的負(fù)荷,如遇到主軸分布密集而切削負(fù)荷又不大時(shí),為了減少中心軸,也可用一根主軸帶1-2根或更多根主軸的傳動(dòng)方案. 3) 為使結(jié)構(gòu)緊湊多軸箱體的齒輪傳動(dòng)副的最佳傳動(dòng)比為1-1.5,在多軸箱后蓋內(nèi)的第IV排(或第V排)齒輪,根據(jù)需要,其傳動(dòng)比可以取大些,但一般不超過(guò)33.5。 4) 根據(jù)轉(zhuǎn)速與轉(zhuǎn)距成反比的道理，一般情況下如驅(qū)動(dòng)軸轉(zhuǎn)速較高時(shí)，可采用逐步降速傳動(dòng)，如驅(qū)動(dòng)軸轉(zhuǎn)速較低時(shí)可先使速度升高一點(diǎn)再降速，這樣可使傳動(dòng)鏈前面幾根軸齒輪上的齒輪應(yīng)盡量安排靠近前支承，以減少主軸的扭轉(zhuǎn)變形。 5）粗加工切削力大，主軸上的齒輪應(yīng)盡量安排靠近前支承，以減少主軸的扭轉(zhuǎn)變形。 6）齒輪安排數(shù)可按下面方法安排： 不同軸上齒輪不相碰，可放在箱體內(nèi)同一排上。 不同軸上齒輪與軸或軸套不相碰，可放在箱體內(nèi)不同排上。 齒輪與軸相碰，可放在后蓋內(nèi)。 四專用夾具結(jié)構(gòu)設(shè)計(jì) 機(jī)床夾具是在機(jī)床上所使用的一種輔助裝置，用它來(lái)準(zhǔn)確迅速地確定工件與機(jī)床刀具間地相對(duì)位置，即將工件定位及夾緊，以完成加工所需地相對(duì)運(yùn)動(dòng)。使用夾具地最終目的是保證產(chǎn)品質(zhì)量，改善工人勞動(dòng)條件，提高生產(chǎn)效率，降低產(chǎn)品成本。 1定位基準(zhǔn)的選擇 由零件圖可知，采用雙面加工的方法，同時(shí)為了縮短輔助時(shí)間采用液壓夾緊。 2 夾緊力的計(jì)算 查《機(jī)床夾具設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè)》表1－2－11 工件以平面定位，夾緊力與切削力方向垂直。 其中為基本安全系數(shù)1，2 為加工性質(zhì)系數(shù)1，2 為刀具鈍化系數(shù)1 為斷續(xù)切削系數(shù)1 ＝0.16 ＝0.7 ＝2.5 則＝＝2750N 現(xiàn)選用地腳式的液壓缸，查《機(jī)床夾具設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè)》： 故本夾具可安全工作。 第五章液壓原理圖 第六章PLC控制設(shè)計(jì) 1 工作原理及電氣控制要求 雙面鉆孔組合機(jī)床是在工件兩相對(duì)表面上進(jìn)行鉆孔的一種高效自動(dòng)化專用加工設(shè)備 。2 個(gè)動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)對(duì)面布置并安裝在標(biāo)準(zhǔn)側(cè)底座上,刀具電動(dòng)機(jī)M2 ,M3 分別固定在左、右動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)上,中間底座上裝有工件定位夾緊裝置。該機(jī)床采用電動(dòng)機(jī)和液壓系統(tǒng)(未畫出) 相結(jié)合的驅(qū)動(dòng)方式,其中電動(dòng)機(jī)M2 ,M3 分別帶動(dòng)左、右主軸箱的刀具主軸提供切削主運(yùn)動(dòng),而左、右動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)和工件定位夾緊裝置則由液壓系統(tǒng)驅(qū)動(dòng),M1 為液壓泵的驅(qū)動(dòng)電動(dòng)機(jī),M4 為冷卻泵電動(dòng)機(jī)。機(jī)床的電氣控制要求為M1 先啟動(dòng),只有系統(tǒng)正常供油后,其它控制電路才能通電工作; M2 ,M3在滑臺(tái)進(jìn)給循環(huán)開始時(shí)啟動(dòng),滑臺(tái)退回原位后停機(jī);M4 可手動(dòng)控制啟停,也可在滑臺(tái)工作進(jìn)給時(shí)自動(dòng)提供油液。其控制過(guò)程是典型的順序控制,當(dāng)把工件裝入夾具后,按下啟動(dòng)按鈕SB3 ,機(jī)床便開始自動(dòng)循環(huán)的工作過(guò)程. 2 電氣控制系統(tǒng)硬件設(shè)計(jì) 雙面鉆孔組合機(jī)床的電氣控制屬單機(jī)控制, 輸入輸出均為開關(guān)量。根據(jù)實(shí)際控制要求,并考慮系統(tǒng)改造成本,在準(zhǔn)確計(jì)算I/ O 總點(diǎn)數(shù)的基礎(chǔ)上,采用抗干擾強(qiáng)、穩(wěn)定性和可靠性較高的三菱公司生產(chǎn)的FX1N260MR 可編程控制器。該控制系統(tǒng)中所有輸入觸發(fā)信號(hào)采用常開觸點(diǎn)接法,所需的24 V 直流電源由PLC 內(nèi)部提供;輸出負(fù)載中的所有直流電磁換向閥同樣采用由PLC 內(nèi)部提供的24 V 直流電源,輸出負(fù)載中的4 個(gè)交流接觸器線圈則需外接220 V 交流電源.由于雙面鉆孔組合機(jī)床中轉(zhuǎn)換開關(guān)、按鈕及行開關(guān)較多,為了減少輸入點(diǎn)數(shù),降低費(fèi)用,對(duì)輸入信號(hào)作了適當(dāng)處理,如4 臺(tái)電動(dòng)機(jī)的過(guò)載保護(hù)不作為輸入信號(hào),而直接接入輸出線圈回路中。另外,電磁閥為感性負(fù)載并且通斷頻繁,為了保護(hù)PLC 的輸出觸點(diǎn),在每個(gè)電磁閥兩端各并上1 個(gè)續(xù)流二極管,來(lái)吸收反向過(guò)電壓。 3.電氣控制系統(tǒng)軟件設(shè)計(jì) 由雙面鉆孔組合機(jī)床的控制要求可知,該控制系統(tǒng)需要實(shí)現(xiàn)3 個(gè)控制功能: ① 動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)的點(diǎn)動(dòng)、復(fù)位控制; ②動(dòng)力滑臺(tái)的單機(jī)自動(dòng)循環(huán)控制; ③整機(jī)全自動(dòng)工作循環(huán)控制。本程序經(jīng)模擬調(diào)試,完全符合雙面鉆孔組合機(jī)床的電氣控制要求,使用效果良好。在使用過(guò)程中,還可根據(jù)不同的控制要求,在不改動(dòng)接線或改動(dòng)很少的情況下,通過(guò)改變程序來(lái)實(shí)現(xiàn)不同要求,大大節(jié)省了安裝調(diào)試時(shí)間,提高了效率。 　 結(jié)論 本系統(tǒng)經(jīng)過(guò)PLC 融入后,運(yùn)行良好,故障率低。而且組合機(jī)床控制系統(tǒng)具有很好的柔性,能適應(yīng)產(chǎn)品的變化,當(dāng)工藝程序變更時(shí),只需修改程序,就可滿足新的加工要求。可見傳統(tǒng)的機(jī)械設(shè)備融入PLC技術(shù) 后,既能使之成為機(jī)電一體化的新產(chǎn)品,適用生產(chǎn)過(guò)程的自動(dòng)控制,又能發(fā)揮原組合機(jī)床的效能,而且投資較小,可見,靈活應(yīng)用PLC 是實(shí)現(xiàn)組合機(jī)床電氣自動(dòng)化的有效途徑。本組合機(jī)床較好地解決了大批量鉆變速箱兩端面孔的問(wèn)題。不但保正加工質(zhì)量,而且大為提高了工效,具有良好的經(jīng)濟(jì)效益和應(yīng)用價(jià)值。 致謝 這次設(shè)計(jì)是在范真導(dǎo)師的精心指導(dǎo)下完成的。范老師進(jìn)場(chǎng)抽出大量寶貴時(shí)間來(lái)關(guān)心我們,并且經(jīng)常指導(dǎo)我的畢業(yè)設(shè)計(jì)。每當(dāng)我們?cè)谠O(shè)計(jì)上遇到什么問(wèn)題或是有什么想不通的，她都會(huì)細(xì)心的講解，直到我們懂為止，在此，獻(xiàn)上誠(chéng)摯的謝意。還要謝謝在設(shè)計(jì)中幫助我的同學(xué)，以及幫我答辯的各位老師！ 參考資料 1、《組合機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì)》沈陽(yáng)工業(yè)大學(xué)、吉林工業(yè)大學(xué)、大連鐵道學(xué)院主編　上海出版社出版　1985年9月 2、《組合機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì)》　大連組合機(jī)研究所編　　機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社　1975年6月 3、《金屬切削加工工藝人員手冊(cè)》上?？茖W(xué)技術(shù)出版社 4、《金屬切削機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì)參考圖冊(cè)》　機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社 5、《金屬切削機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì)》　大連工學(xué)院　戴曙主編　機(jī)械工業(yè)出版　　1985年12月 6、《組合機(jī)床液壓滑臺(tái)圖冊(cè)》　機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社 7、《機(jī)械設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè)》　　遼寧科學(xué)技術(shù)出版社 8、《機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì)手冊(cè)》　機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社　1978年12月 9、《組合機(jī)床設(shè)計(jì)參考圖冊(cè)》　大連組合機(jī)床研究所編　機(jī)械工業(yè)出版社 19 The Development and Application of a Planar Encoder Measuring System for Performance Tests of CNC Machine Tools W. Jywe Department of Automation Engineering, National Huwei Institute of Technology, Huwei, Yunlin, Taiwan In this paper, a measuring device with a planar encoder is developed to test the performance of a CNC machine tool. With the assistance of a PC, this system can be employed for both 2D contouring tests and 3D positioning tests for a CNC machine tool. The structure and the principle of the system, the applications for the general 2D contouring test, the drift test, and the specified geometric part path tests. An actual case study on improving the accuracy of machining a cam are described. Finally, a new 3D positioning method using the optic encoder is demonstrated. Keywords: Ball bar system; CNC machine tool; Geometric part path; Planar encoder; Thermal drift test; Three-dimensional positioning; Two-dimensional contouring 1. Introduction Machine tool performance and consistency is the main determinant of the quality of parts machined by it. It is of importance to check the performance of the machine tool systematically for direct quality control purposes or to compensate for this uncertainty. Schlesinger, in 1932 [1], first provided a systematic testing method for machine tools. This method was developed as the basis of the ISO standard. Tlusty, in 1959 [2], employed an electric level and sensor to test the spindle accuracy. Tlusty and Koenigsberger [3] and Burdekin [4] indicated new testing rules for machine tools. Burdekin [5] checked the relation between the motion accuracy of machine tools and the machined part. Tlusty [6] proposed a non-cutting testing method. The tests for machine tool performance were then classified into a direct cutting test and an indirect cutting test. Ericson [7] first described the work zone of machine tools. Bryan and Pearson [8] explained the definition and the way to measure the pitch, roll and yaw motion and straightness error. After the commercial laser interferometer [9] was available, the analysis of volumetric errors [10–13] was described. Voutsudopoulos and Burdekin [14] indicated a calibrating model for a coordinate measuring machine. Fan [15] used a laser interferometer and a related device with the assistance of a PC to calibrate different types of NC machine tools. Zhang and Hockey [16] obtained the 21 error components by measuring the position errors. Zhang and Zang [17] designed a 1-D ball array to find the 21 error components, then Zhang [18] described a rapid method to obtain the straightness error. In 2000, Jywe [19] described a method of employing a ball bar system for the verification of the volumetric error of CNC machine tools. Circular tests were developed to check both geometric errors and contouring errors. Burdekin [20] described cutting tests using circular paths for accuracy assessment. Bryan [21] developed the first ball bar system for the contouring test. However, in this system, the uncertainty is high due to the friction between the master balls and the magnetic sockets and no accurate contouring radius was given. Knapp’s system [22,23] used a circular comparison standard disc mounted on the test table of the machine tool and a 2D-probe. The problems for this system are the existence of friction between the 2D probe and the disc, its small bandwidth, which causes the system to be unusable for high-speed contouring tests, and the high cost of the 2D probe. Kakinov [24–27] provided a series of methods using a ball bar system to calibrate a coordinate measuring machine and CNC machine tools. Knapp [28,29] described a rule to reduce the errors due to stick–slip etc. Burdekin and Park [30] modified the original ball bar system by employing a four-rod linkage. Burdekin and Jywe [31] provided a method to diagnose the contouring error and to adjust the parameters of the CNC controller to optimise the performance of the tested CNC machine tool. Ziegert and Mize [32] described a laser ball bar system. All these ball bar systems, including the lateral Renishaw system [33] provide only the radius error during the contouring test. This limits the analysis of contouring error since no individual error in each axis is available. Jywe [34] used two position silicon detectors (PSD) for a contouring test to obtain the contouring error in each axis. One laser source emits a laser beam and the laser beam is split into two vertical lines and projected onto two positioning silicon detectors, which are set vertically to each other on the test machine table. The Heidenhein [35] grid encoder also provides a 2D contouring test, but at very high cost. A planar encoder system was developed [36] for applications such as semiconductor and electronics manufacturing equipment. The system, which has a good dynamic response, can provide up to a 0.1
m resolution in positioning, and it is of importance that it is of low cost. However, the original planar encoder was designed for manual operation. It is not suitable for the contouring test of CNC machine tools due to the following considerations: 1. The original system only included an encoder and a reading head. No related interface and driver are available. 2. Thus there were no related contouring software and testing methods. Thus, in this paper a new computer-aided planar encoder system has been employed and integrated, with the related software, for checking the both the dynamic performance and the geometric error of a CNC machine tool. It is of importance that 90% of the cost of the contouring testing device can be reduced compared to the equivalent Heidenhein grid encoder system. From the previous research, it has been found that the device for the circular test is not always suitable for a 3D geometric error test. Furthermore, these devices are not suitable for a free-form 2D contouring test. In this paper a simple measuring device is designed and developed to check contouring performance with a single axis output. The application for a 3D positioning test is also developed. 2. The 2D Planar Encoder Contouring Measuring System for CNC Machine Tools 2.1 Principle of the Planar Encoder A planar encoder system, such as the Renishaw RGX grid plate, has been developed for applications such as semiconductor and electronics manufacturing equipment. The system uses a reading head with two orthogonal sensors that read a checkered grid in both the X and Y directions simultaneously. The system has a good dynamic response and can provide up to 0.1 m resolution in positioning. The software in V-Basic is edited to carry out the measuring procedure. Figure 1 shows the arrangement of the contouring test using the simple planar encoder. This planar encoder provides positioning information in each axis for 2D contouring. During the test, the planar encoder is set on the CNC machine tool, and the reading head is fixed in the spindle. The computer software can read the sampling data via a counter card. 3. Uncertainty of the Measuring System 3.1 Uncertainty Due to Sampling Procedure The developed software incorporated the following factors: 1. Sampling must be uniform around the profile and reasonably independent of the type and speed of the computer. A Planar Encoder Measuring System for CNC Machine Tools 21 2. Sufficient sampling data is required to display and analyse the error at high resolution. 3. Sampling data should be independent of contouring speed, computer speed and contouring radius. 3.2 Uncertainty Due to Thermal Effect Considering the thermal effect of the system for the tests, if the temperature in the planar encoder is different from that of the machine tool table, the radius error will be affected. If the temperature of the planar encoder itself is not uniform, the out of roundness error will be affected. Although the thermal expansion coefficient of the planar encoder is rather small, to minimise the effects, the encoder should be put on the test machine table for some time to reduce the difference in the temperatures and to let the temperatures of the encoder stabilise. 4. Test Results of a Circular Contouring Path A simple contouring test is carried out on the XY-plane of a vertical CNC machine tool with a 0M Fanuc controller. The contouring result is shown in Fig. 2. The anticlockwise and clockwise contouring tests at 20 mm radius can meet ISO 230-1 and 230-2 requirements. From the results, the absolute radius error can be found easily. For general contouring systems, only the out of roundness is given. Furthermore, the error for each axis can also be found individually if necessary. This is useful for analytical purposes. 5. Thermal Drift This contouring system provides a non-contacting contouring test. For general contouring systems such as a ball bar system, only a limited number of runs are executed, due to the problem of winding of the signal cable. In this application, the test run is unlimited. Thus, a thermal drift test can be carried out easily without additional fixtures. For eight-hour continuous clockwise contouring runs, contouring results are shown in Fig. 3 for each two-hour period. The contouring centre for each 30 minutes, is plotted in Fig. 4. The contouring centre drift is significant in the 8 hours. It is important that not only the contouring centre drift is given but also the contouring error form in each run can be obtained. From this test, the performance of continuous runs can be monitored easily by this system. Fig. 1. The optical measuring system for contouring performance test on a CNC machine tool. Fig. 2. The clockwise and anticlockwise contouring test results with Fig. 3. The thermo drift test results during 8 hours continuous the planar encoder measuring system. Fig4.The thermal drift test results presented by the drift of the contouring centres. Fig. 5. The squareness test result on a CNC machine tool with theplanar encoder measuring system. 6. Squareness Error Test by Planar Encoder The squareness error can be tested easily with the planar encoder. Let the encoder be set on the tested plane. The reading head goes along the square of the encoder. A CNC machine tool was tested and the result is shown in Fig. 5. contouring test. 7. Laser Diode and Quadrant Sensor Contouring System [37]* Using a laser diode and a quadrant sensor contouring system, the planar encoder contouring system can be verified. Using a 2 mm clockwise contouring radius, Fig. 6 shows the contouring result using the quadrant sensor, while Fig. 7 gives similar results. Fig. 6. The contouring test results for square path with the laser diode and quadrant sensor contouring system [37].* Fig. 7. The contouring results for a square path with the planar encoder. Fig. 8. The test result for a combination of various geometric shapes provided by the planar encoder measuring system. Fig. 9. The geometric shape of a specified 2D cam. Fig. 10. The test results of the path of the CNC machine tool with/without cutter radius compensation. Fig. 11. The test results with self-calculated cutter radius compensation under different feed rates. Fig. 12. The structure of a 3D positioning measuring device. without sensors, is connected to the spindle of the tested CNC machine tool and to the reading head by two individual balls and magnetic sockets. The centre of the ball on the ball bar on the side of the spindle is the 3D measuring target to be analysed. When the target is reached, the first sample from the planar encoder is then taken at its first position. Without moving the target, the planar encoder is moved to a neighbouring point and a second sample is taken. Finally, the other neighbouring point is sampled as the third sample. Each of the three samples includes 2D coordinates, the 3D coordinates of the target which can be analysed. Thus each 3D movement will be obtained by this 1-point and 3-step (1P3S) method. This method can be described as follows. To obtain the 3D positioning coordinates X, Y and Z, a simple model is developed in Fig. 13, where: Fig. 13. The model for analysing coordinates of x, y, z. x, y, z are the coordinates to be analysed. x1, y1, z1, x2, y2, z2, x3, y3, z3 are the coordinates provided by the 2D optical scale in the first, second and third step samples. L1, L2, L3 are the lengths provided by the ball bar. Then, Solving the equation, where Here, two possible solutions can be found. One is on the top of the planar encoder, while the other is below it. Thus, in this application only the coordinates on the top of the ball plate are used. After the coordinate z is found, x and y can also be found. In this application, the ball bar length is fixed, thus L1  L2  L3. To extend the working range a standard or laser ball bar system with a long working range displacement sensor can be employed. In that case, L1, L2, L3 can be obtained by that sensor. To minimise the cost, in this application only one set of planar encoders and a simple ball bar are considered. Thus, A Planar Encoder Measuring System for CNC Machine Tools 27 the coordinates x1, y1, z1, x2, y2, z2, x3, y3, z3 have to be obtained by the planar encoder in three individual samples. The sampling procedure (1P3S) is: 1. Let the machine tool move to the tested position (one point). 2. Take the sample by the planar encoder (step 1). 3. Move the reading head to a neighbouring position related to the planar encoder; the tested machine is not moved. Take the sample by the planar encoder (step 2). 4. Move the reading head to the next neighbouring position, the tested machine is not moved. Take the sample by the planar encoder (step 3). z1, z2, z3 are affected by the flatness (?Zij) of the linear XY stage. The flatness of the linear XY stage ?Zij is equal to the ith grid on the X-axis and the jth grid on the Y-axis. 11. Discussion and Conclusions In this paper, a planar encoder system was employed for a contouring test of a CNC machine tool. It was proved that this system could be employed successfully for the contouring test. The advantages of this application can be summarised as follows: 1. During the contouring test, the contouring error for each individual axis can be obtained. This is not possible using a general ball bar system. This function provides more useful information for analysing the contouring error. 2. The system can be employed for a long-period thermal drift test, but the traditional ball bar systems cannot, because in this there is no cable which can be wound up. 2. For contouring a combination of complicated curves such as a cam, the system can be employed while a general ball bar system cannot. Table 1. The verification result of the planar encoder for 3D positioning With this 2D optical measuring system, the 3D positioning error test can also be performed successfully. Thus this optical encoder can be employed for both dynamic performance and geometric error tests on CNC machine tools. Acknowledgements The work was supported by National Science Council, Taiwan, Republic of China, Grant Number NSC-88-2212-E-150-006. References 1. G. Schlesinger, Inspection Test on Machine Tools, Machinery Publishing Co. Ltd, London, 1932. 2. J. Tlusty, System and methods for testing machine tools, Microtechnic, 13, p.162, 1959. 3. J. Tlusty and F. 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