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1、11 Cohesion in English The various kinds of cohesion had been out lined by MAK Halliday in his writings on stylistics and the concept was developed by Ruqayia Hasan in her University of Edinburgh doctoral thesis. Cohesive relations are relations between two or more elements in a text that a

2、re independent of the structure: for example between a personal pronoun and an antecedent proper name, such as John ….he. A semantic relation of this kind may be set up either within a sentence with the consequence that when it crosses a sentence boundary it has the effect of making the two sentence

3、s cohere with one another. The major function of cohesion is text formation. As defined: text is a unified whole of linguistic items, this unity of text as a semantic whole is source for the concept of cohesion. So first we will explore the concept of text. Text Text in linguistics refers

4、to any passage spoken written of whatever length that forms a unified whole. A reader can easily identify whether the passage he is reading is a text or otherwise a collection of unrelated sentences. A text may be: spoken, written, prose, verse, dialogue, monologue, single proverb, a single cry for

5、help or all day discussion on a committee. A text is a unit of language in use. A grammatical unit that is larger than a sentence. A text is not something that is like a sentence only bigger or larger. It is misleading. Rather text can be best defined as a semantic unit; a unit not of form but of me

6、aning. If it is semantic unit, we will not expect to find it in structure of a sentence as a grammatical unit as phrase, clause etc. So text is not consist of sentence but it is realized by sentence or encoded in sentences. There are certain objective factors involved that constitute a text.

7、Constituents of Text 1. Texture: 2. Ties: 3. Cohesion 1. Texture: Texture is that feature of text which made it a unified whole. According to ‘The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics by P.H. Mathews’ cohesion and coherence are sources which create texture. Crystal adds ‘informa

8、tiveness’ to cohesion and coherence. Example: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish. Here them reference back to six cooking apples to create cohesion between the two sentences. Here we make a presupposition about the relationship between them and six cooking app

9、les but it is not enough only to make a presupposition rather that presupposition must be satisfied to create texture as shown in the example . These two items are co referential and this coreferentiality creates texture. Here are five cohesive devices to create texture: (i) Reference (ii) Subs

10、titution (iii) Ellipses (iv) Conjunction (v) Lexical Cohesion 2. Ties The term refers to a single instance of cohesion. Example: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put them into a fireproof dish. Them and six cooking apples show reference as tie. If we take the Exa

11、mple: Wash and core six cooking apples. Put the apples into a fireproof dish. Here are two ties (i) Reference (ii) Repetition Cohesive analysis of text is made in terms of tie for a systematic account of its patterns which are a source for texture. Onward we will use the term

12、‘cohesive tie’ in place of ‘tie’. Here are five different kinds of cohesive ties that are also called cohesive devices: (i) Reference (ii) Substitution (iii) Ellipses (iv) Conjunction (v) Lexical cohesion MAKH and RH have based their model of cohesion on these cohesive ties. A detailed re

13、view is given here in the proceeding discussion. 3. Cohesion ‘The Concise Oxford Dictionary of Linguistics by P.H. Mathews (1997)’ defines cohesion in term of syntactic unit (sentence). ‘ A Dictionary Of Linguistics And Phonetics by David Crystal (1997)’ defines cohesion in terms of a grammati

14、cal unit (words) MAKH and RH (1976) argued that the concept of cohesion is semantic one. For them it refers to relation of meaning that: exists with in text gives the text texture defines the text as text This relation of

15、 meaning between the elements gives the reader presupposition. This is another way of approaching the notion of cohesion that presupposing and the presupposed give us a presupposition at semantic level as a relation of meaning: The one element presupposes the other i.e. the one element cannot be dec

16、oded without the presupposed. Example: Time flies You can’t; they fly too quickly. You can’t (Ellipses) They (Reference) Fly (Lexical Cohesion) Types OF Cohesion Language is multiple coding system comprising three levels

17、 of coding: Meaning The semantic system Wording The lexicogrammatical system (grammar an vocabulary) Sounding/writing The phonological and orthographical system Cohesive relation fit into the overall pattern of language. Cohesion is expressed partly through voca

18、bulary and partly through grammar. : 1. Grammatical Cohesion (i) Reference (ii) Substitution (iii) Ellipses 2. Lexical Cohesion The distinction between grammatical cohesion and Lexical cohesion is a matter of degree and MAHK RH suggested not to go in the depth of these overlap

19、ping areas and that conjunction is on the border line of the two types mainly it is grammatical but with the lexical component so we cannot clearly distinguish between the two types. Cohesion and the Linguistics Structure Texture and Structure Structure is one mean of expressing textur

20、e. Text consists of one sentence are fairly rare but they can be single sentences as well for Example No smoking Wonder never cease But most of the text extends beyond the confines of single sentences so structure is important in a text as structural units such as phrase, clause and sentenc

21、e which express the unity of text. But our use of term Cohesion refers especially to the non structural text forming relation. They are semantic relations and the text is a semantic unit. Cohesion With in the Text Since cohesive relation is not concerned with structure, they may be found just

22、 as well with in the sentence as between sentences cohesive relation are beyond the sentences boundaries. Cohesion is semantic relation between one element in the text and some other element that is crucial for its interpretation. This other element must also be found with in the text. Cohesion refe

23、rs to the range of possibilities that exist for linking something with what has gone before. The Place of Cohesion in the Linguistics System Halliday (1985) has described three major functional semantic components: (i) The Ideational (ii) The Interpersonal (iii) The Textual Table: the

24、place of cohesion in the description of English functional components of semantic system Ideational Interpersonal Textual Experiential Logical Structural Non-structural By Rank: Clause: Transitivity Verbal Group: Tense Nominal Group: Epithesis Adverbial Group: circ

25、mstance All Ranks: Practice and hypotactic relations (condition, addition, report) By Ranks Clause: Mood, modality Verbal Group: person Nominal Group: attitude Adverbial Group: comment By Rank Clause: theme Verbal Group: voice Nominal Group: deixis A

26、dverbial Group: conjunction Cross-Rank Information Unit: Information distribution, Information focus Cohesion Reference Substitution Ellipses Conjunction Lexical cohesion Conclusion Cohesion is a part of text forming component in the linguistics system. It link

27、s together the elements that are structurally unrelated through the dependence of one on the other for its interpretation. Without cohesion the semantic system cannot be effectively activated at all. Cohesive Devices (i) Reference (ii) Substitution (iii) Ellipses (iv) Conjunction (v) Lex

28、ical cohesion 1. Reference There are certain items in any language which cannot be interpreted semantically in their own right rather they make reference to something else within the text for their interpretation. Here is an example of reference Doctor Foster went to Gloucester in a shower o

29、f rain He stepped in puddle right up to his middle And never went there again Here in the above example He refers back to Doctor Foster There refers back to Gloucester He and there show that information about them is retrieved elsewhere within the text. It characterizes

30、 a particular type of cohesion which is called reference. The relationship of reference is on semantic level. The reference items must not match the grammatical item it refers to. What must match or the semantic properties of reference item in relation to the items it refers to. Reference can be

31、 sub-categorize as follow Reference Exophora Endophora Anaphora Cataphora Exophora It indicates situational references. Anaphora signals that reference must be made to the context of situation. It is outside the text so it is called anaphoric reference. Example; For

32、 he’s a jolly good fellow and so say all of us. Here text is not indicating who he is? He can be recognized by the situation in which expression is used. They are not source of cohesion because there presupposition cannot be resolved within the text rather the presupposition is found outside the t

33、ext. Endophora It is a general name for reference within the text. This reference can be of two types. (i) Anaphora: Reference back (ii) Cataphora: Reference forward Example: Child: Why does that one come out? Parent: That what Child: That one. Parent: That one what? Child: That

34、lever there that you push to let the water out. That one that lever (cataphoric reference) That lever that one (anaphoric reference) Types of reference There are three types of reference (i) Personal Reference (ii) Demonstrative Reference (iii) Comparative Reference It is b

35、etter first explain the structure of nominal group then proceed towards three types of Reference. It is because we will analyze nominal group for cohesive analysis of these cohesive devices. Nominal Group The logical structure of the nominal group (noun phrase) is that it consists of head with opt

36、ional modifier the modifying elements include some which precede the head and some which follow it. They can be referred as Pre modifier and Post modifier respectively. Example The two high stone wall along the roadside. Wall ------------ Head The two high stone ------------ Pre modifi

37、er Along the roadside ------------ Post modifier The modifier can be further subcategorized as: (i) Deictic (ii) Numerative (iii) Epithet (iv) Classifier (v) Qualifier (vi) Thing Example Their famous old red wine. Deictic Deictic epithet classifier thing Determi

38、ner adjective adjective adjective noun I. Personal Reference It is a reference by means of function into a speech situation through the category of the person in the form of personal pronouns. The category of persons includes the three classes of personal pronouns. The category of person include

39、s the three classes of personal pronouns. During the communication process the speech roles are assigned to the participants through the person system as: Speaker Addressee It/one are used as a generalized form for other items Example If the buyer wants to look the condition of the proper

40、ty, he has to have another survey. One carried out on his own behalf. Here in the above example the use of personal pronouns is a source of personal reference Buyer he his Survey one If possessive pronouns are used, they give two more notions other than Speaker and Addressee. They are

41、 that of Possessor and Possessed as I the following example That new house is John’s. I didn’t know it was his Possessor John Possessed house shown by the use of his and ‘s The following table shows the system of person for personal reference. Table: Personal Reference Exi

42、stential Possessive Head Modifier Noun (pronoun) Determiner I me you we us he him she her they them it one mine yours ours his hers theirs [its] my yours our his her thei

43、r its one’s Semantic category Grammatical function Class Person: speaker (only) addressee (s), with/without other person(s) speaker and other person other person, male other per

44、son, female other persons, objects object; passage of text generalized person II. Demonstrative Reference It is essentially a form of verbal pointing. The speaker identifies or points pout the referent by locating it on scale of proximity. The system of demonstrative pronoun is give

45、n in the following table. Table: Demonstrative Reference Selective Non-selective Modifier Adjunct Modifier determiner adverb determiner this these that those here [now] there then the Semantic category

46、 Grammatical function Class Proximity: near far neutral Examples Leave that there and come here. Where do you come from? I like the lions and I like the polar bears. These are my favorites and

47、those are my favorites too. III. Comparative Reference Here two types of comparison are given: (i) General Comparison (ii) Particular Comparison (i) General Comparison Here things compared show likeness or unlikeness without considering any particular property. Likeness or unlikenes

48、s is referential property as something is can be like something else. Example It’s the same cat as the one we saw yesterday. Its different cat from the one we saw yesterday (ii)Particular Comparison Here comparison is made on the scale of quantity or quality it is a matter of degree compare

49、things on this scale. In other words we can say it expresses the comparability between things. Example Take some more tea We are demanding higher living standard. There are twice as many people there as the last time. Table: Comparative reference Modifier Deictic /epithet (see b

50、elow) Submodifier /adjuncts Adjectives Adverb same identical equal similar additional other different else identically similarly likewise so such differently otherwise better, more etc [comparative adjectives and quantifiers] so more less equ

51、ally Grammatical function Class General comparison: Identity general similarity difference (i.e. non-identity or similarity) Particular comparison: 2. Substitution Substitution is replacement of one linguistic item by a

52、nother. Ellipses is also a kind of Substitution where one linguistic item is replaced by nothing/ zero. Therefore it is an omission of an item. When we talk about replacement of one item by another, we mean replacement of one word/phrase with another word or phrase. We can say substitution is a

53、 relation on lexicogrammatical level. It is used to avoid repetition of a particular item. But while locating cohesion through substitution semantic is involved. Example My axe is too blunt. I mist get a sharper one. You know John already knows. I think everybody does. Substitution is conf

54、ined to text so exophoric substitution is rare. Most of the substitutions are endophoric and that of anaphoric type. But cataphoric substitution can also found in certain circumstances. Types of Substitution There are three types of substitution. (i) Nominal Substitution (ii) Verbal Sub

55、stitution (iii) Clausal substitution 1. Nominal Substitution There are three nominal substitutes. one, ones, same. The nominal substitute one/ones The substitute one/ones always function as head of a nominal group and can substitute only for an item which is itself head a nominal group.

56、Example I’ve heard some strange stories in my time. But this one was perhaps the strangest one of all. Note: The word other than a substitute can be used as (i) The personal pronoun one (ii) Cardinal numeral one (iii) Determiner one The nominal substitute same Same typically acc

57、ompanied by the presuppose an entire nominal group. Example A: I’ll have two poached eggs on toast, please. B: I’ll have the same The Same can have following expressions as: Say the same DO the same Be the same 2. Verbal Substitution The verbal substitute is do. This operat

58、es as head of a verbal group. Lexical verb is replaced by do and its position is on the final in the group. Example from Alice The words did not come the same as they used to do. It can also substitute for a verb plus certain other elements in the clause. Example I don’t know the mean

59、ing of half those language words and what’s more, I don’t believe you do either. Note: The word Do other than as substitute Lexical verb do (he is doing) General verb do (they did a dance) Pro-verb do {do(action), happen(event)} Clausal sub

60、stitution Here presupposed is not an element within the clause but an entire clause. So and Not are clausal substitutes Example Is there going to be an earth quake? - it says so Types of Clausal Substitution There are three types of clausal substitution. Substitution of reported cl

61、ause Substitution of conditional clause Substitution of modalized clause 1. Substitution of Reported Clause The reported clausal that is substituted by so or not is always declarative whatever the mood of the presupposed clause is whether interrogative or imperative. Example Has

62、 everyone gone home? I hope not. I didn’t think so. (I hope not (that) every one has gone home) Is this mango ripe? – It seems so. The essential distinction to be made here is that between reports and facts. Reports can be substituted whereas facts can not, reason is that facts

63、 are encoded at semantic level while clausal substitute works at lexicogrammatical level only. 2. Substitution of Conditional Clause Conditional clause are also substituted by so and not especially following if / assuming so / suppose so etc. Example Everyone seems to think he’s guilty. If

64、 so, no doubt he’ll offer to resign We should recognize the place when we come to it. Yes, but supposing not then what do we do? 3. Substitution of Modalized Clause So and not also occur as substitute for clauses expressing modality. Example ‘May I give you a slice?’ she said. ‘Certainly not’ the red queen said.