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附　　錄 附錄A. Manual Transmission It’s no secret that cars with manual transmissions are usually more fun to drive than the automatic-equipped counterparts. If you have even a passing interest in the act of driving, then chances are you also appreciate a fine-shifting manual gearbox. But how does a manual transmission actually work? A history hows that manual transmissions preceded automatics by several decades. In fact，up until General Motors offered an automatic in 1938, all cars were of the shift-it-yourself variety. While it’s logical for many types of today’s vehicles to be equipped with an automatic――such as a full-size sedan, SUV or pickup――the fact remains that nothing is more of a thrill to drive than a tautly suspended sport sedan, snort coupe or two-sealer equipped with a precise-shifting five-or six-speed gearbox． We know whicn types or cars have manual trannies. Now let’s take a look at how they work. From the most basic four-speed manual in a car from the’60s to the most high-tech six-speed one in a car of today, the principles of a manual gearbox are the same. The driver must shift from gear to gear. Normally, a manual transmission bolts to a clutch housing (or bell housing）, in turn, bolts to the back of the engine. If the vehicle has front-wheel drive, the transmission still attaches to the engine in a similar fashion but is usually referred to as a transaxle. This is because the transmission, differential and drive axles are one complete unit. In a front-wheel-drive car, the transmission also serves as part of the front axle for the front wheels. In the remaining text, a transmission and a transaxle will both be referred to using the term transmission. The function of any transmission is transferring engine power to the driveshaft and rear wheels (or axle halfshafts and front wheels in a front-wheel-drive vehicle). Gears inside the transmission change the vehicle’s drive-wheel speed and torque in relation to engine speed and torque．Lower(numerically higher) gear ratios serve as torque multipliers and help the engine to develop enough power to accelerate from a standstill. Initially, power and torque from the engine comes into the front of the transmissions and rotates the main drive gear (or input shaft), which meshes with the cluster or counter shaft gear――a series of gears forged into one piece that resembles a cluster of gears. The cluster-gear assembly rotates any time the clutch is engaged to a running engine，whether or not the transmission is in gear or in neutral. There are two basic types of manual transmissions. The sliding-gear type and the constant-mesh design. With the basic――and now obsolete――sliding-gear type，nothing is turning inside the transmission case except the main drive gear and cluster gear when the trans is in neutral. In order to mesh the gears and apply engine power to move the vehicle, the driver presses the clutch pedal and moves the shifter handle, which in turn moves the shift linkage and forks to slide a gear along the mainshaft, which is mounted directly above the cluster. Once the gears are meshed, the clutch pedal is released and the engine’s power is sent to the drive wheels. There can be several gears on the mainshaft of different diameters and tooth counts, and the transmission shift linkage is designed so the driver has to unmesh one gear before being able to mesh another. With these older transmissions, gear clash is a problem because the gears are all rotating at different speeds. All modern transmissions are of the constant-mesh type, which still uses a similar gear arrangement as the sliding-gear type. However，all the mainshaft gears are in constant mesh with the cluster gears. This is possible because the gears on the mainshaft are not splined to the shaft, but are free to rotate on it. With a constant-mesh gearbox, the main drive gear, cluster gear and all the mainshaft gears are always turning, even when the transmission is in neutral. Alongside each gear on the mainshaft is a dog clutch, with a hub that’s positively splined to the shaft and an outer ring that can slide over against each gear. Both the mainshaft gear and the ring of the dog clutch have a row of teeth. Moving shift linkage moves the dog clutch against the adjacent mainshaft gear, causing the teeth to interlock and solidly lock the gear to the mainshaft. To prevent gears from grinding or clashing during engagement, a constant-mesh, fully "synchronized" manual transmission is equipped with synchronizers. A synchronizer typically consists of an inner-splined hub, an outer sleeve, shifter plates，lock rings（or springs）and blocking rings. The hub is splined onto the mainshaft between a pair of main drive gears. Held in place by the lock rings，the shifter plates position the sleeve over the hub while also holding the floating blocking rings in proper alignment. A synchro’s inner hub and sleeve are made of steel, but the blocking ring――the part of the synchro that rubs on the gear to change its speed――is usually made of a softer material, such as brass. The blocking ring has teeth that match the teeth on the dog clutch. Most synchros perform double duty――they push the synchro in one direction and lock one gear to the mainshaft. Push the synchro the other way and it disengages from the first gear, passes through a neutral position, and engages a gear on the other side. That’s the basics on the inner workings of a manual transmission. As for advances, they have been extensive over the years, mainly in the area of additional gears. Back in the 60’s, four-speeds were common in American and European performance cars．Most of these transmissions had 1:1 final-drive ratios with no overdrives. Today, overdriven five-speeds are standard on practically all passenger cars available with a manual gearbox. Overdrive is an arrangement of gearing that provides more revolutions of the driven shaft（the driveshaft going to the wheels）than the driving shaft（crankshaft of the engine）. For example, a transmission with a fourth-gear ratio of 1:1 and a fifth-gear ratio of 0.70:1 will reduce engine rpm by 30 percent, while the vehicle maintains the same road speed. Thus, fuel efficiency will improve and engine wear will be notably reduced. Today, six-speed transmissions are becoming more and more common. One of the first cars sold in America with a six-speed was the ’89 Corvette. Designed by Chevrolet and Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen（ZF）and built by ZF in Germany, this tough-as-nails six-speed was available in the Corvette up to the conclusion of the ’96 model year. Today，the Corvette uses a Tremec T56 six-speed mounted at the back of the car. Many cars are available today with six-speeds, including the Mazda Miata, Porsche Boxster S and 911, Dodge Viper, Mercedes-Benz SLK320, Honda S2000, Toyota Celica GT-S and many others. Some of these gearboxes provide radical 50-percent (0.50:1) sixth-gear overdrives such as in the Viper and Corvette, while others provide tightly spaced gear ratios like in the S2000 and Celica for spirited backroad performance driving. While the bigger cars mentioned above such as the Viper and Vette often have two overdrive ratios（fifth and sixth）the smaller cars like the Celica and S2000 usually have one overdriven gear ratio（sixth) and fifth is 1:1. Clearly a slick-shifting manual transmission is one of the main components in a fun-to-drive car, along with a powerful engine，confidence-inspiring suspension and competent brakes. 附錄B. 手動(dòng)變速器 相對(duì)于自動(dòng)變速箱的車手動(dòng)變速箱汽車開起來有更好的駕駛樂趣這是眾所周知的。哪怕你對(duì)駕駛僅有一點(diǎn)興趣，那么你也會(huì)對(duì)一個(gè)齒輪變速器的完美工作刮目相看。那么手動(dòng)變速器到底是怎么工作的呢？ 手動(dòng)變速器在幾十年以前就被自動(dòng)變速箱所取代了，事實(shí)上從前的車都是配備的手動(dòng)變速箱，直到1938年通用汽車公司推出第一款自動(dòng)變速車。今天的諸多車輛像轎車、越野車、小型載貨汽車采用自動(dòng)變速是很符合邏輯的，因?yàn)闆]有任何事會(huì)比駕駛一個(gè)配有5-6個(gè)檔的手動(dòng)變速箱的車更令人緊張不安了。 現(xiàn)在讓我們看看他們是怎么工作的。從60年代的四速手動(dòng)到今天的最高六速變速器的基本原理是沒有改變的。駕駛員仍然要操縱齒輪使其相互嚙合。通常，變速器與離合器殼連接，離合器的另一面再同發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)相連。如果是前輪驅(qū)動(dòng)的車仍然是這種簡單的連接方式，但要稱其為驅(qū)動(dòng)橋，這是因?yàn)樽兯傧浜万?qū)動(dòng)軸是一個(gè)整體的機(jī)構(gòu)。在前驅(qū)車上變速箱也是前輪驅(qū)動(dòng)橋的一部分。在過去的概念中變速器跟驅(qū)動(dòng)橋被統(tǒng)稱為變速驅(qū)動(dòng)橋。 變速箱的功能就是將發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的動(dòng)力傳遞給驅(qū)動(dòng)軸和后輪（前驅(qū)車是傳遞給半軸和前輪）通過變速箱中的齒輪改變了發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)傳給車輪的速度和扭矩。低傳動(dòng)比能夠增大扭矩使發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)有足夠的加速能量。 起初，發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)將動(dòng)力和扭力傳給變速箱的輸入軸，輸入軸上的齒輪與中間軸上的齒輪嚙合，從而形成一個(gè)齒輪組。這個(gè)齒輪組的任何一次轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)都是離合器與運(yùn)轉(zhuǎn)的發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)相連的結(jié)果，總之變速器就是一個(gè)齒輪的組合體。 有兩種手動(dòng)變速器?；瑒?dòng)型的和常嚙合型的?；瑒?dòng)型的（已經(jīng)不用）變速器處于空檔時(shí)，除了主動(dòng)齒輪和齒輪組轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)其他都是不轉(zhuǎn)的。為了使齒輪嚙合從而讓發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)輸出的動(dòng)力帶動(dòng)汽車運(yùn)動(dòng)駕駛員要踏下離合器踏板同時(shí)操作換檔桿。換檔桿會(huì)聯(lián)動(dòng)換檔撥叉帶動(dòng)安裝在輸入軸上的相應(yīng)齒輪沿輸入軸移動(dòng)。一旦齒輪嚙合，釋放離合器踏板后發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)動(dòng)力就會(huì)傳給驅(qū)動(dòng)輪。輸入軸上會(huì)有多個(gè)不同直徑不同齒數(shù)的齒輪。因?yàn)閾Q檔是聯(lián)動(dòng)的所以駕駛員必須使已經(jīng)嚙合的齒輪分離才能使另一對(duì)齒輪嚙合。 由于齒輪嚙合時(shí)的速度不同，老式變速箱會(huì)有換檔沖擊的問題。 現(xiàn)代的變速箱都是常嚙合型的，齒輪布置是沿用滑動(dòng)型的布置方式。然而所有主軸上的齒輪與中間軸上齒輪都是常嚙合的，這是因?yàn)橹鬏S上的齒輪在軸上是可以來回移動(dòng)的而不是用花鍵鏈連接的。即使變速箱處于空檔狀態(tài)，常嚙合型變速箱上的各個(gè)齒輪都是在轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)的。 主軸上每個(gè)齒輪旁邊都有一個(gè)爪式離合器（接合套），花鍵轂用內(nèi)花鍵連接在主軸上的花鍵上。主軸上的齒輪和接合套的外環(huán)都有花鍵。當(dāng)操縱換檔桿時(shí)就會(huì)使接合套對(duì)著主軸齒輪移動(dòng)，最終使接合套與齒輪互鎖從而使齒輪嚙合隨主軸轉(zhuǎn)動(dòng)。 為了避免齒輪換檔同步前嚙合時(shí)產(chǎn)生的接合齒間沖擊，手動(dòng)變速器上安裝了同步器。同步器由花鍵轂、套筒、撥叉、彈簧、鎖環(huán)等組成?；ㄦI轂位于一對(duì)主動(dòng)齒輪中間并由花鍵固定在主軸上。鎖環(huán)的齒圈是鎖止件，滑塊裝在花鍵轂上的軸向槽內(nèi)，沿槽可以軸向移動(dòng)。滑塊和彈簧是推動(dòng)件。滑塊兩端伸入鎖環(huán)的缺口中，滑塊窄缺口寬，且只有當(dāng)滑塊位于鎖環(huán)缺口中央時(shí)，結(jié)合套與鎖環(huán)才能接合。 同步器的花鍵轂和套筒是由鋼制成的，但用于與齒輪產(chǎn)生摩擦來減慢速度的鎖環(huán)使用青銅一類的較軟材料制成的，鎖環(huán)上有短花鍵齒圈。大多數(shù)同步器都有兩個(gè)作用，向一個(gè)方向運(yùn)動(dòng)使一個(gè)齒輪與主軸鎖定，在另外一個(gè)方向使其與第一個(gè)齒輪分離，經(jīng)過一個(gè)空檔位置后與另一個(gè)齒輪嚙合。 這就是手動(dòng)變速器的內(nèi)部工作原理。幾十年來的發(fā)展中主要在齒輪數(shù)上又有所增加。在60年代的歐美等國四速汽車已很普遍，變速箱的傳動(dòng)比都是1：1，沒有更高的了，而在今天，作為載客汽車五速已經(jīng)是最低的了。 超速傳動(dòng)是一種新的齒輪的布置方式，這種布置方式使汽車的驅(qū)動(dòng)輪獲得動(dòng)力比發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)曲軸輸出的動(dòng)力更大。例如，一個(gè)四速的變速器的傳動(dòng)比是1：1而五速的是0.7：1，這會(huì)使發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的轉(zhuǎn)速降低30%但行駛速度卻是相同的。這樣燃油的消耗量和發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的磨損都會(huì)下降。如今六速車已經(jīng)變得越來越普遍。第一輛六速車是由美國雪佛蘭汽車公司和Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen公司共同設(shè)計(jì)并由Zahnradfabrik Friedrichshafen公司在德國制造的89 Corvette（89版克爾維特）。即使跟現(xiàn)在96版的克爾維特比這款六速車仍然是值得稱贊的。今天克爾維特用的是Tremec T56六速手排變速箱。 現(xiàn)代的很多車都配備六速變速器包括馬自達(dá)的馬爾塔、保時(shí)捷的Boxster S 和911、道奇的Viper、奔馳的SLK320、本田的S2000、豐田的塞利卡等品牌。這些車中像Viper 和 Corvette,的變速器超速傳動(dòng)達(dá)到50%，有些品牌像S2000 和 Celica超速傳動(dòng)有更大的提高。以上提到的大型車像Viper 和Vette通常有兩個(gè)傳動(dòng)比（五速和六速），小型車像Celica 和 S2000有一個(gè)傳動(dòng)比（六速），五檔的傳動(dòng)比為1：1。 很顯然除了發(fā)動(dòng)機(jī)的強(qiáng)大動(dòng)力、可靠的懸掛系統(tǒng)和制動(dòng)系統(tǒng)外，平順的換檔是駕駛樂趣中的又一大重要組成部分。