陳四樓礦2.4 Mta新井設(shè)計含5張CAD圖.zip,陳四樓礦2.4,Mta新井設(shè)計含5張CAD圖,陳四樓礦,2.4,Mta,設(shè)計,CAD 英文原文 The future of small-scale mining: environmental and socioeconomic perspectives Gavin M. Hilson Environmental Policy and Management Group (EPMG), Imperial College of Science, Technology and Medicine, Royal School of Mines, Prince Consort Road, London SW7 2BP, UK Abstract Although small-scale mining provides innumerable benefits to the rural inhabitants and governments of the developing world, its operations have been responsible for a wide range of environmental and socioeconomic complications. This article examines the impacts of small-scale mining, and provides a perspective on the future of the industry. It first describes small-scale mining activity, emphasizing key definitional and locational characteristics. Next, it examines the socioeconomic impacts of the industry, along with its environmental problems.The article concludes by discussing the future of small-scale mining in developing countries. Key words: Small-scale mining; Developing countries; Environment; Future + Introduction Small-scale mining has become an indispensable industry in the developing world. Its operations, which feature the most rudimentary of technologies and management practices, provide employment to millions of rural inhabitants. Furthermore, the revenues accrued from activities contribute positively to the mineral export bases and foreign exchange earnings of a number of countries. At the same time, however, several problems exist within small-scale mining regions. In addition to causing significant pollution and land degradation, the industry is renowned for its unsafe practices. Moreover, diseases such as AIDS and malaria, which are prevalent within resident communities, are spreading at an unprecedentedrate. With operations increasing in abundance throughout Africa, Asia and Latin America, it is imperative that governments begin tackling key small-scale mining issues with improved strategy. The purpose of this article is to examine environmental impacts of small-scale mining in developing countries, and to provide a perspective on the future of the industry. The article first describes small-scale mining activity, emphasizing key definitional and locational characteristics. The article concludes with a brief discussion on the future of small-scale mining in developing countries. + An overview of small-scale mining Mining has occurred on a small-scale for well over 2000 years. There is a wealth of evidence indicating that several early civilizations, including the Romans, Greeks, Egyptians, and most successful pre-colonial African groups, engaged in widespread artisanal mineral extraction and winning processes. In fact, the exploitation of minerals on a small-scale was largely responsible for the wealth and strength of most ancient empires and cultures. Although several definitions have emerged, ?small-scale mining‘ is now used as an all-encompassing label for the non-mechanized, labour intensive activities of the mining sector1. What makes it unique is its operations and management techniques.Unlike large-scale counterparts, which commonly feature state-of-the-art machinery and skilled workers, small-scale mines are usually rudimentary in design, and are characterized by highly manual processes. The typical mine operating on a small scale is a producer, often sporadically, of limited amounts of mineral from deposits with few known ore reserves, and, when compared to large-scale mining, requirements in terms of implementation time and initial investment are extremely low, and employment per-unit output is high (Figure 1), since a shortage of adequate machinery leads to heavy dependence on manual labour. In most cases, technology does not extend beyond the basic shovel and pick. Fig. 1. Small- vs large-scale mining comparative profiles [4] Small-scale mining has become an indispensable part of the socioeconomic fabric of the developing world. The industry has not only traditionally provided a wealth of employment opportunities to rural inhabitants but in recent years, has also contributed significantly to a number of countries‘ mineral export bases and foreign exchange earnings. At the same time, however, operations, collectively, have caused significant environmental problems worldwide. Most of these complications are a direct result of the rudimentary nature of activities, and the fact that generally, environmental awareness is low industry-wide. The aim of the discussion that follows is to put into perspective both the environmental and socioeconomic implications of small-scale mining. A complete understanding of these issues is key to facilitating and promoting a sustainable2 industry for future generations. + Socioeconomic perspectives The social and economic importance of small-scale mining cannot be overstated.Although it is estimated by many that the industry employs approximately six million people, it has recently been reported by the International Labour Organization (ILO) that a more precise figure is 11.5–13 million.It is quite possible, however, that as many as 100 million people worldwide depend upon the industry—both directly and indirectly—for their livelihoods (needless to say, a more realistic estimate is 30 million).As Table 1 depicts, in some countries, such as Brazil and China, the smalls-cale mining employment contingent is in the millions. The majority are engaged in gold and precious stone extraction and processing, although a notable percentage is involved in the mining of a wide range of industrial minerals; such is the case in China (coal), Chile (copper) and Zambia (dimension stones). Occupations range from simple sediment transportation tasks, to more complicated mercury processing duties.In instances where entire families are working at sites, typically, men engage in heavy lifting and strenuous activities; women perform ore panning and ?sorting‘ tasks; and children serve as couriers, transporting goods and ore from one area of a site to another. Apart from the obvious employment benefits, however, small-scale mining contributes significantly to the mineral resource bases and export earnings of a number of developing countries. Table1 Small-scale mining operations and employment totals in selected developing countries Regularization has largely been responsible for the increased production achieved in the small-scale mining industry in recent years. In the past, small-scale mining was perceived as informal, and was not recognized internationally as an industry.The trend, therefore, appears to be increased legalization and regularization worldwide in a sector that has traditionally not been perceived as being economically significant. Two particularly disturbing issues that have been brought to the forefront of international small-scale mining agendas in recent years are health and safety, and labour concerns. In fact, small-scale mining has acquired a reputation for being inherently unsafe and inhumane. As far as safety is concerned, pits are typically constructed haphazardly, leading to rock falls, cave-ins and ventilation complications. Moreover, explosives, which have been banned for use in small-scale mining districts by a number of governments, are often used carelessly, resulting in injury and death. Overall, these and related safety problems are attributable to a combination of a lack of training, improper inspection on the part of governmental authorities, and violation of regulations. To summarize, socially and economically, small-scale mining provides numerous work opportunities for rural inhabitants of the developing world, and makes positive contributions to the mineral bases and export earnings of a number of countries. At the same time, however, sites are inherently unsafe, serve as vectors for waterborne diseases, and feature overworked and underpaid female and child labourers. As small–scale mining operations are increasing in both number and size throughout the world, it is crucial that, governments take these issues into careful consideration,and begin implementing measures to improve social quality-of-life in and around sites. 4. Environmental perspectives In spite of the above-mentioned issues, the most serious problems in the small scale mining industry are environmental in nature. Pollution from mercury is perhaps the most significant, as almost all African, Latin American and Asian countries with flourishing small-scale gold mining segments have reported some contamination complication as a result of its use as a mineral processing agent. In a process known as amalgamation, mercury is applied to gold-aggregated sediment, which results in a pasty amalgam. This, in turn, is burned, generally in the open air, to produce the final gold product. Inorganic mercury, however, when released into the environment, is transformed into toxic methylmercury, which, in sufficient quantities, is deleterious to both plant and aquatic life, and harmful to human health. Another environmental problem that persists throughout the industry is excessive land degradation. As a migratory activity, small-scale mining requires continuous pitting and trenching. Moreover, as prospective geological deposits are fixed, quite often, mass tracts of forest are removed and rivers are diverged in the process of searching for ore. Most of the land that is excavated is not properly reclaimed, resulting in ?potholed‘ landscapes. In the past 10–15 years, both of the aforementioned environmental problems have intensified because much of the small-scale mining industry has expanded in an anarchic manner. Further, the efforts made by regional governments to address these and related impacts have been marginal at best. In fact, most of the initiatives undertaken have not been environmental per se but rather actions aimed at improving the efficiency of operations.One promising initiative is the reclamation bond, which, in 22 cases where governments have budgetary constraints in terms of mining environmental management, helps to facilitate the reclamation of disturbed landscape. In short, commissions from mineral sales are obtained from miners and kept in a fund, which, in turn, are used to finance reclamation efforts. In summary, efforts to improve the environmental management of small-scale mining operations worldwide have been highly ineffective overall. For example, apart from a series of individual studies, few countries have undertaken national mercury studies to determine the impact of resident small-scale gold mining activites. Furthermore,few governments have attempted to ascertain the potential contribution—if any—of improved environmental technology. The industry has proven to be indispensable socially and economically, which is why pressing environmental problems must be tackled with improved strategy. Governments therefore must undertake a series of environmental and socioeconomic initiatives to ensure that the current situation does not become completely unmanageable. 5. Discussion: the future of small-scale mining The discussion thus far has examined both the key socioeconomic and environmental issues in the small-scale mining industry. Socially and economically, operations provide thousands of rural inhabitants with employment opportunities, and contribute positively to the mineral export bases and foreign exchange earnings of several developing countries.In view of the current socioeconomic and environmental states of small-scale mining, what can be expected in the future? Undoubtedly, with time, small-scale mining will become more indispensable. It currently plays a pivotal role in alleviating significant poverty in rural regions of the developing world, and with the number of operations on the rise, it will likely continue to provide economic opportunities to drifters, nomads, redundant labourers, migratory workers, and resident families. What is needed to ensure a sustainable future in the small-scale mining industry? First, and foremost, despite government claims of having formalized operations, the industry continues to be treated informally. For example, rather than drafting individual policies for small-scale mining, most governments have elected to address the industry‘s needs separately in existing national mineral legislation, in which case, issues tend not to be handled effectively. Moreover, legislation specifically for smalls cale mining is still generally nonexistent. Governments must therefore craft individual policies and laws for the industry, and provide it with the necessary guidelines and blueprints to operate along an improved and efficient course. Secondly, governments must adopt an improved environmental strategy—namely which one emphasizes a combination of environmental management, technology and assessment. Systems are available for mercury management, for example, that could help to minimize emissions and discharges. More specifically, the retort and gravity trap technologies now widely utilized in Bolivia, Tanzania and Indonesia have helped to reduce mercury emissions by more than 90%. Governments, with the assistance of NGOs, must also perform stricter auditing and monitoring duties in small-scale mining regions. If industry-specific environmental legislation is implemented, 22 the monitoring can be improved. Periodically, groups of engineers and scientists should be sent to sites to conduct chemical tests, and occasionally, to provide demonstration assistance. Finally, the needs of individual miners must be addressed. Often, in the case of large-scale mines, governments and NGOs have helped to finance the construction of housing, disease control centres, and medical facilities, when, in fact, these needs are more pressing in resident small-scale mining regions. It is imperative, therefore, that governmental bodies begin providing services to small-scale miners. In cases where operations are well out of the reach of resident hospitals and service centres, transportation services must be provided. Moreover, housing should be constructed for miners since generally, the living conditions in small–scale mining communities are highly unsanitary, and often serve as disease spreading centres. Effort must also be made to fight disease, either through expanded prevention programmes or educational services. Although it could be argued that the above recommendations are highly theoretical, they have nevertheless helped to illustrate what initiatives must be undertaken to promote sustainable development—i.e. to improve quality-of-life and environmental protection—in the small-scale mining industry. It is truly cynical to assume that the governments of the developing world are incapable of facilitating such changesbecause in most cases, they are the only bodies capable of directing operations along an efficient and sustainable course. 6. Conclusion The perspectives provided in this article help to underscore both the significance of small-scale mining in society, and its environmental and socioeconomic impacts. Operations, collectively, provide thousands of rural inhabitants of the developing world with employment, and contribute positively to mineral export bases and foreign exchange earnings of a number of countries. At the same time, however, the industry is responsible for causing a plethora of environmental and socioeconomic problems. If small-scale mining continues along its present course, these problems will undoubtedly intensify, and the situation, overall, could become unmanageable. It is therefore imperative that governments begin promoting sustainability—i.e. improved environmental protection and quality-of-life—in resident operations,which, as this article has explained, can be accomplished by formalizing operations, improving environmental management, and addressing the needs of individual miners. References [1] Traore PA. Strategies for development of Small/Medium Scale Mines in Africa. In: Ghose K, editor. Small/medium scale mining. UK: Oxford & IBH Publication Company; 1997. p. 17–24. [2] Hilson G. Small-scale mining and its socioeconomic impact in developing countries. Natural Resources Forum 2002;26(1):3–13. [3] ILO. Social and labour issues in small-scale mines. Report for discussion at the Tripartite Meeting on Social and Labour Issues in Small-scale Mines, International Labour Organization, Sectoral Activities Programme, International Labour Office, Geneva, 1999. [4] Noetstaller R. Small-scale mining: practices, policies and perspectives. In: Ghose AK, editor. Small scale mining: a global overview. Rotterdam: Unknown; 1994. [5] Simpson J. International mining strategy, Intermediate Technology Development Group, London,1999. [6] A′ vila EC. La llamada pequen?a miner?′a: un renovado enfoque empresarial. Divisio′n Recursos Naturalese Infraestructura, Santiago, Chile (in Spanish), 2000. [7] UN. Recent developments in small-scale mining: A report of the Secretary-General of the United Nations. Natural Resources Forum 1996;20(3):215–25. [8] UNIDO. United Nations Industrial Development Organization Programme Document: UNIDO 2000—High Impact Programme no. 4, Introducing New Technologies for Abatement of Global Mercury Pollution, United Nations Industrial Development Organization (UNIDO), Austria, 2000. 中文譯文 Gavin M. Hilson  未來的小規(guī)模采礦:環(huán)境和社會經(jīng)濟的視角 環(huán)境政策和管理集團(EPMG)、帝國理工學(xué)院的科學(xué)、技術(shù)和醫(yī)學(xué),皇家礦業(yè)學(xué)院,王子的 配偶路,倫敦 SW7 2 個基點,英國 文摘 雖然小規(guī)模采礦為發(fā)展中國家的居民和政府提供了無數(shù)的益處,但是其開采導(dǎo)致一個廣 泛的環(huán)境和社會經(jīng)濟的并發(fā)癥。本文分析了影響小規(guī)模采礦的現(xiàn)狀,并就社會經(jīng)濟視角對這 個行業(yè)的未來進行分析。它首先描述了小規(guī)模采礦活動的定義和區(qū)位特征。接下來,它闡述 了社會經(jīng)濟和環(huán)境問題對該產(chǎn)業(yè)的影響。在文章的最后,討論未來的發(fā)展中國家的小規(guī)模采 礦。 關(guān)鍵詞:小規(guī)模采礦;發(fā)展中國家;環(huán)境;未來 1.介紹 小規(guī)模采礦已經(jīng)成為一種必不可少的重要產(chǎn)業(yè)在發(fā)展中世界。它要求的最基本的技術(shù)和 管理實踐,為數(shù)以百萬計的農(nóng)村居民提供就業(yè)機會。此外,小規(guī)模采礦的收入對增加礦產(chǎn)出 口基地和很多國家的外匯收入的數(shù)量有一定的促進作用。 與此同時,小規(guī)模采礦地區(qū)也存在著很多問題。除了導(dǎo)致了嚴重的污染和土地退化,小規(guī) 模采礦的不安全也是眾所周知的。此外,它還導(dǎo)致疾病如艾滋病和瘧疾等在居民社區(qū)內(nèi)以 一個史無前例地速度蔓延。隨著小規(guī)模礦區(qū)的數(shù)量非洲、亞洲和拉丁美洲等地急劇增加,, 政府的當(dāng)務(wù)之急是開始制定解決小規(guī)模采礦關(guān)鍵問題的改進策略。 本文的目的是闡述小規(guī)模采礦在發(fā)展中國家對環(huán)境造成的影響,并提供社會經(jīng)濟視角 對這個行業(yè)的未來進行討論。本文首先描述了小規(guī)模采礦活動的定義和區(qū)位特征，然后是 簡短的討論了未來的發(fā)展中國家的小規(guī)模采礦。 2.小規(guī)模采礦的概述 在礦業(yè)中小規(guī)模采礦已經(jīng)有了 2000 多年的歷史了。有大量的證據(jù)顯示,一些早期文明, 包括羅馬人、希臘人、埃及人、和最成功的殖民非洲組織,從事礦產(chǎn)開采,贏得廣泛手工過 程。事實上,其開發(fā)一個小規(guī)模的礦物主要負責(zé)財富和實力的最古老的帝國和文化。 盡管出現(xiàn)了幾種解釋,“小規(guī)模采礦”現(xiàn)在被看作一種無機械化的,勞動密集的采礦。 它最獨特的地方是它的操作和管理技術(shù)。與大規(guī)模的同行一樣,通常最先進的機械特性和 熟練的工人,小型礦山通常是基本的設(shè)計,并且具有高度手動流程。典型的礦井操作在一個 很小的規(guī)模是制片人,通常,零星的數(shù)量有限的礦物從存款不多的礦石儲量,相比,大規(guī)模 開采,需求方面的實現(xiàn)時間和初始投資是非常低的,和就業(yè)單位產(chǎn)出高(圖 1),因為缺乏足 夠的機械導(dǎo)致嚴重依賴于體力勞動。在大多數(shù)情況下,技術(shù)不能擴展到基本的鏟子和選擇。 圖 1.小規(guī)模和大規(guī)模開采比較檔案 小規(guī)模采礦已經(jīng)成為一個不可或缺的部分發(fā)展中國家的社會經(jīng)濟結(jié)構(gòu)。該行業(yè)不僅傳 統(tǒng)上提供了豐富的就業(yè)機會,但近年來農(nóng)村居民,也極大地推動了許多國家的礦產(chǎn)出口基 地和外匯收入。然而,與此同時,操作,總的來說,已經(jīng)引起了重大的全球環(huán)境問題。大多數(shù) 這些并發(fā)癥直接導(dǎo)致的基本性質(zhì)的活動,事實上,一般來說,是環(huán)保意識低的行業(yè)。下面的 討論是透視環(huán)境和社會經(jīng)濟影響雙方的小規(guī)模采礦。這些問題的關(guān)鍵是這個可持續(xù)的行業(yè) 能推動未來幾代人。 3.社會經(jīng)濟視角 小規(guī)模采礦的社會和經(jīng)濟方面的重要性不能被過分夸大。盡管許多人預(yù)計該行業(yè)雇傭了 大約六百萬人,最近國際勞工組織(ILO)報道一個更精確的數(shù)字是 11.5~13 億。然而,全球 有多達 1 億人直接或間接的依靠工業(yè)生存，（更接近真實的估計是 3000 萬)。如表 1 所描 述的,在一些國家,例如巴西和中國,小規(guī)模采礦就業(yè)隊伍在數(shù)百萬。大多數(shù)從事黃金和寶 石開采和加工,比較顯著的比例是開采范圍廣泛的工業(yè)礦物;中國(煤)、智利(銅)和贊比亞 (石料)。職業(yè)范圍是從簡單的沉積物運輸任務(wù)到更復(fù)雜的水銀處理。在實例中,整個家庭 正在進行工作,通常,男性從事舉重和體力活動;女性進行鐵礦石平移和“排序”任務(wù);和孩 子充當(dāng)信使,運送貨物和礦石從一個地方到另一個站點的。除了明顯的就業(yè)好處,小規(guī)模采 礦大大促使發(fā)展中國家的礦產(chǎn)資源的基地和出口收入的數(shù)量。 表 1. 發(fā)展中國家的小規(guī)模采礦作業(yè)和就業(yè)總數(shù) 近年來，小規(guī)模采礦工業(yè)的正規(guī)化使該產(chǎn)業(yè)的產(chǎn)量有了很大的增加。在過去,小規(guī)模采 礦雖然被認為是正式的,但是不是國際公認的一個行業(yè)。但是，這個向來不被視為是具有經(jīng) 濟意義的小規(guī)模采礦行業(yè)在全球范圍內(nèi)越來越有變得合法化和規(guī)范化的趨勢。 目前，在國際議程的前沿關(guān)于小規(guī)模采礦的兩個特別令人擔(dān)憂的問題是健康安全和勞 動力問題。事實上,小規(guī)模采礦已經(jīng)獲得了眾所周知的危險性和不人道。至于安全而言,建 造的人類的開采挖掘,導(dǎo)致巖石墜落、塌陷和通風(fēng)的并發(fā)癥。此外,炸藥,往往由于人類粗 心大意,造成傷害和死亡，也被很多政府禁止用于小型礦區(qū),?？偟膩碚f,這些安全問題都 是由于缺乏訓(xùn)練,政府當(dāng)局的不適當(dāng)?shù)臋z查和違反規(guī)定。 總結(jié)一下,社會和經(jīng)濟上,小規(guī)模采礦為發(fā)展中國家的農(nóng)村居民提供了大量的工作機會,為 一些國家的礦產(chǎn)基地和出口收入做出積極貢獻。然而,該產(chǎn)業(yè)本質(zhì)上是不安全的,例如,水 源性疾病和功能勞累過度,婦女和兒童勞動者報酬過低。隨著小規(guī)模采礦業(yè)務(wù)在在整個世 界不斷增加的數(shù)量和規(guī)模,關(guān)鍵是政府把這些問題納入慎重的考慮,并開始采取措施改善 社會生活質(zhì)量及周邊地區(qū)的環(huán)境。 4.環(huán)境角度 盡管上述問題,最嚴重的問題在小規(guī)模采礦行業(yè)對自然環(huán)境的影響。汞污染可能是最重 大的,因為幾乎所有的非洲、拉美和亞洲國家和發(fā)達的小型金礦劃分有報道一些污染的并 發(fā)癥是由于它的使用作為一種礦物加工代理。這個過程稱為融合。水星是因為聚合金的沉 積物,結(jié)果導(dǎo)致汞合金餡餅。反過來,這被燒毀,通常在露天,生成最終的黃金產(chǎn)品。無機汞 對人體健康是無害的。然而,當(dāng)無機汞泄漏到環(huán)境中,轉(zhuǎn)換成有毒的甲基水銀,達到足夠數(shù) 量時,有害于水生生物和 人類的健康。 另一個持續(xù)存在整個行業(yè)的環(huán)境問題是過度的土地退化。作為一個遷徙活動,小規(guī)模采 礦導(dǎo)致的挖掘和凹陷不斷。此外,因為未來的地質(zhì)存款是固定的,通常,在大規(guī)模的大片森 林被分化和河流開叉來尋找礦石的過程中，大部分的土地,挖出來,沒有被正確回收,導(dǎo)致 在無用的地質(zhì)情況。 在過去的 10~15 年,他