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U7 main GetStarted TextStudy SupplementaryResources Unit7 CultureDuringtheEnlightenment 1 GetStarted main GetStarted 1 AGeneralIntroduction 2 FocusIn 2 GetStarted 1 1 GetStarted 3 GetStarted 1 2 GetStarted TheEnlightenment aperiodinEuropeanhistory occurredduringthe18thcentury ThisperiodisalsoknownastheAgeofReason TheEnlightenmentwasatimeofawakeningofpolitical social andeconomicthought TheideasoftheEnlightenmentoriginatedinFranceandeventuallyspreadthroughoutmuchofEuropeandintotheNorthAmericancoloniesofBritain TheseideashelpedlaythephilosophicalfoundationsfortheAmericanandFrenchrevolutions TheEnlightenmentdevelopedoutoftheworksof17th centurythinkerssuchasIsaacNewton Ren Descartes andJohnLocke Abeliefinthesupremacyofreasonwasthechief 4 GetStarted 1 3 GetStarted characteristicoftheEnlightenment ThinkersoftheEnlightenmentbelievedthatthroughtheuseofreason peoplecouldlearnhumanity struenatureandusethisknowledgetoestablishaperfectsociety AnotherhallmarkoftheEnlightenmentwasanenduringbeliefinthescientificmethod rationalism andtheexistenceofunchangeablenaturallaws ManyofthewritingsoftheEnlightenmentchallengedtheacceptedpoliticalideasandreligiousbeliefsofthetime includingtheconceptthatmonarchsreceivetheirrighttoruledirectlyfromGod 5 GetStarted 1 4 GetStarted TheforemostfiguresintheEnlightenmentwereagroupofFrenchthinkersknownasphilosophers Thepreeminentmemberofthisgroupwasthewriter historian andpoetVoltaire HeemergedastheEnlightenment schiefcriticofcontemporarycultureandreligion AnotherimportantmemberofthisgroupwasJeanJacquesRousseau whosewritingsgreatlyinfluencedthepoliticalthinkingofthetime AlsoinfluentialwerethewritingsofCharles BarondeMontesquieu whochallengedtheideaofrulebyamonarchandchampionedindividualfreedom ThephilosopherDenisDiderot incollaborationwithJeanD Alembert plannedandeditedamultivolumeencyclopediadesignedtoincludeallrealmsofknowledge Manyoftheentrieswerewrittenbyotherphilosophies 6 GetStarted 1 5 GetStarted Itwasundersuchpolitical economicandintellectualcircumstancesthattheEnlightenmentbegantobeseeninFranceasanunprecedentedlyintellectualandculturalmovement ItsinfluencewastobeperceivedlaterintheFrenchRevolution theAmericanWarofIndependence andeveninChina sMay4thMovementofNewCultureintheearlyyearsofthe20thcentury 7 GetStarted 2 1 GetStarted TogetabriefviewofthesocialandtheologicalbackgroundoftheEnlightenmentTogettoknowmajorrepresentativefiguresoftheEnlightenmentandtheirideasTounderstandthefeaturesoftheEnlightenmentanditssignificance 8 TextStudy main TextStudy TextStudy I Background II EmpiricistInfluencesfromBritain III RepresentativeFiguresoftheEnlightenmentandTheirIdeas IV LiteratureduringtheEnlightenment V AReflectionontheEnlightenmentandItsSignificance 9 TheEnlightenmentisgenerallyagreedtohaveoriginatedinFrance ItwasduetothefactthatFrancemetwithaperiodofdeclineafteritsnationalprosperityduringthereignofLouisXIV whichwasdemonstratedbythesharpeningclassclashesandsocialcrisesresultingfromthedeterioratingpoliticalandeconomicconditions Internationally FrancealsosufferedaseriesofsetbacksinitscompetitionwithotherEuropeanpowers suchasBritainwhenthelatterwasmarchingsteadilyonitswaytowardsadominatingpositionfollowingtheGloriousRevolutionin1688 ThesituationwasworsenedbyFrance sfiscaldeficitsandeconomicdifficulties causedbyheavy TextStudy I 1 1 TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 10 TextStudy I 1 2 TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas heavytaxationandfrequentfamines whichmadepeasantsandpoorcitizensriseupinrevoltagainsttheroyalgovernment DuringLouisXV sreign FrancewitnessedviolentresistancebythepoortocruelexploitationandoppressionandsuccessivedefeatsinthewarswithAustria RussiaandPrussiainthemiddleofthe18thcentury ThesewarscostFrancethelossofmostofhercoloniesinAsiaandNorthAmerica InadditiontherewasherfailureatsearesultingtotheBritishdominationandlossofhertraditionalnavaladvantage 11 TextStudy I 1 3 TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas Inthiscriticalsituation therewasnootherchoicebutapoliticalreform Asthewholesituationworsened themajorityoftheFrenchpopulation peasantsandtheimpoverishedcitydwellersinparticular sufferedbitterlyfromtheeconomicdeterioration politicalinstability socialchaosandculturalretrogressionandhencerespondedunhesitatinglytothebourgeoisiewhostronglydemandedthatthedeclinebecurbedandreformsbecarriedout Undersuchcircumstances someprogressiveintellectualsbegantothinkseriouslyandtriedtofindawayoutthroughsocialandpoliticalreformation 12 Meanwhile thedisseminationofscientificknowledgewasunderwaywiththedevelopmentofcapitalistproduction whoseinfluencebegantomotivateandevokeabreathofenlightenmentandtheoreticalguidanceacrosstheEuropeancontinent includingtheBritishempiricism whichwaspickedupbyVoltaireandhiscontemporariesandhelpedtoeasetheFrenchintellectualtension SincetheRenaissancetheintellectualclimateinFrancehadgreatlyimproved Manyofthepeoplewerebettereducatedandmoreknowledgeableaboutscience Theyhadhad TextStudy I 1 4 TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 13 TextStudy I 1 5 TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas becomemoreawareofthepracticalsignificanceofscienceandtechnology andthisalteredtheirtraditionalviewsofdailylifeaswellastheirculturalandsocialaffairs TheresultsofthescientificresearchofCopernicus GalileoandNewtonwerepassedonquicklythroughaccesstobooks newspapersandjournalsresultingfromtheinventionofprinting Thisgreatlyinformedandaffectedthepublicwhoseculturaltasteandpoliticalviewpointswerethusmodifiedtothenewintellectualclimate Graduallytheygaveuptheirreligiousandmetaphysicalmodesofreasoningandadoptedanewoutlookwithamoreprogressiveandscientificbasis 14 TextStudy I 2 1 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms InterpretationofCulturalTerms Prussia普魯士 AGermankingdomandhistoricstateoriginatingoutoftheDuchyofPrussiaandtheMargraviateofBrandenburg PrussiashapedthehistoryofGermany withitscapitalinBerlinafter1451 After1871 PrussiawasincreasinglymergedintoGermany losingitsdistinctiveidentity Itwaseffectivelyabolishedin1932 andofficiallyabolishedin1947 Prussiaachieveditsgreatestimportanceinthe18thand19thcenturies Duringthe18thcentury itbecameagreatEuropeanpowerunderthereignofFredericktheGreat 1740 1786 Duringthe19thcentury ChancellorOttovonBismarckunitedtheGermanprincipalitiesintoa LesserGermany whichwouldexcludetheAustrianEmpire 15 TextStudy I 2 2 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms InterpretationofCulturalTerms 16 TextStudy I 2 3 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms InterpretationofCulturalTerms TheBritishGloriousRevolution光榮革命 AlsocalledtheRevolutionof1688ortheBloodlessRevolution itwastheoverthrowofKingJamesIIofEnglandin1688byaunionofParliamentarianswithaninvadingarmyledbyWilliamofOrangefromHollandwhosubsequentlyascendedtheEnglishthronetogetherwithhiswifeMaryII asthejointrulerofEngland ItcanbearguedthatJames soverthrowinitiatedmodernEnglishparliamentarydemocracy neveragainwouldthemonarchholdabsolutepower andtheBillofRightsbecameoneofthemostimportantdocumentsinthepoliticalhistoryofBritain 17 TextStudy I 2 4 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms InterpretationofCulturalTerms Britain ThedepositionoftheRomanCatholicJamesIIendedanychanceofCatholicismbecomingre establishedinEngland andalsoledtolimitedtolerationfornonconformistProtestants thusensuringtheProtestantsuccession 18 TextStudy I 2 5 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms InterpretationofCulturalTerms Empiricism經(jīng)驗主義 Theuseofexperienceorexperimentsasthebasisforyourideasorthebeliefinthesemethods Inphilosophy empiricismisatheoryofknowledgewhichassertsthatknowledgearisesfromexperience Empiricismemphasizestheroleofexperienceandevidence especiallysensoryperception intheformationofideas whilediscountingthenotionofinnateideas Inthephilosophyofscience empiricismemphasizesthoseaspectsofscientificknowledgethatarecloselyrelatedtoevidence especiallyasdiscoveredinexperiments 19 TextStudy I 2 5 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms InterpretationofCulturalTerms experiments Itisafundamentalpartofthescientificmethodthatallhypothesesandtheoriesmustbetestedagainstobservationsofthenaturalworld ratherthanrestingsolelyonapriorireasoning intuition orrevelation Hence scienceisconsideredtobemethodologicallyempiricalinnature 20 TheEnlightenmentfirststartedin Inthe17thcentury Francebecamemorepowerfulineconomicandmilitaryachievementsduetothemeasuresandreformstakenby Incentury FrancelostitsinitialdominationattheseatoEngland TheEnlightenmentwasinfluencedbyBritishanddisseminationof WiththeworseningsituationofFrancein18thcentury moreandmorepeople ledbynewlyemergingstronglydemandedforpoliticalreforms TextStudy I 3 1 TextStudy ComprehensionExercises Fillintheblanks 1 2 3 4 5 ComprehensionExercises France LouisXIV 18th empiricism scientificknowledge Bourgeoisie 21 TextStudy I 4 1 TextStudy ThinkandDiscuss PleasegiveanaccountofthesettingoftheEnlightenment ThefactthattheEnlightenmentfirstoccurredinFrancewasascribedtothedeteriorationineconomic political socialandculturalconditionsinthe18th centuryFrance TheFrenchpeoplestronglydemandedthatthedecliningsituationbearrestedandreformsbecarriedout Undersuchcircumstances progressiveintellectualsbegantothinkmoreseriouslyaboutthesolutionstothecrisesandtriedtoresorttointellectualand ThinkandDiscuss 22 TextStudy I 4 2 TextStudy ThinkandDiscuss ThinkandDiscuss andsocialmeans Thismovementalsoaskedformorepoliticalpowertothepeopleasthebourgeoisiejoinedinwithitseconomicsupportandthustheculturalmovementtinnedwithpoliticalcolourasabourgeoismark Ontheotherhand thedisseminationofscientificknowledgeandtheinfluencesofBritishempiricismalsoimmenselyheightenedintellectualandpoliticalawarenessofthepeopleingeneral Thispreparedthepoliticalbasisofthebourgeoisrevolutiontofollow 23 TextStudy I 1 1 pop TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 24 TextStudy I 1 2 pop TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 25 TextStudy II 1 1 TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 26 TextStudy II 1 2 TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 27 TextStudy II 1 3 TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 28 TextStudy II 1 4 TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 29 TextStudy II 2 1 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms ThomasHobbes托馬斯 霍布斯 1588 1679 BritishphilosopherwhosefamousbookLeviathan 利維坦 in1651establishedthefoundationformostoftheWesternpoliticalphilosophyfromtheperspectiveofsocialcontracttheory InterpretationofCulturalTerms 30 TextStudy II 2 2 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms GottfriedWilhelmVonLeibniz萊布尼茲 1646 1716 Germanmathematicianandphilosopher Inphilosophy heismostlyrememberedforoptimism i e hisconclusionthatouruniverseis inarestrictedsense thebestpossibleoneGodcouldhavemade Hewas alongwithRen DescartesandBaruchSpinoza oneofthethreegreatest17th centuryrationalists buthisphilosophyalsolooksbacktothescholastictraditionandanticipatesmodernlogicandanalysis InterpretationofCulturalTerms 31 TextStudy II 2 3 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms Ren Descartes笛卡爾 1596 1650 AhighlyinfluentialFrenchphilosopher mathematician scientist andwriter Descarteswasamajorfigurein17th centurycontinentalrationalism lateradvocatedbyBaruchSpinozaandGottfriedLeibniz andopposedbytheempiricistschoolofthoughtconsistingofHobbes Locke Berkeley andHume Leibniz SpinozaandDescarteswereallwellversedinmathematicsaswellasphilosophy andDescartesandLeibnizcontributedgreatlytoscienceaswell InterpretationofCulturalTerms 32 TextStudy II 2 4 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms InterpretationofCulturalTerms ImmanuelKant康德 1724 1804 An18th centuryGermanphilosopher HeisregardedasoneofthemostinfluentialthinkersofmodernEuropeandofthelateEnlightenment 33 TextStudy II 2 5 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms Phenomenalism現(xiàn)象學(xué) Theviewthatphysicalobjectsdonotexistasthingsinthemselvesbutonlyasperceptualphenomenaorsensorystimuli e g redness hardness softness sweetness etc situatedintimeandinspace Inparticular phenomenalismreducestalkaboutphysicalobjectsintheexternalworldtotalkaboutbundlesofsense data InterpretationofCulturalTerms 34 TextStudy II 2 6 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms AugusteComte孔德 1798 1857 AFrenchthinker widelyregardedasthefirstsociologist Hedevelopeda secularreligion socialtheoryknownaspositivism whichemphasizesreasonandlogic Comtealsofoundedthesocialsciences HeandotherearlysocialscientistsassumethathumanbehaviormustobeylawsjustasstrictlyasmaterialobjectsobeyNewton sLawsofMotion andthatifwecoulddiscoverthelawsofhumanbehaviours wecouldeliminatemoralevils InterpretationofCulturalTerms 35 TextStudy II 2 7 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms Positivism實證主義 Thephilosophythattheonlyauthenticknowledgeisonebasedonactualsenseexperience Suchknowledgecanonlycomefromtheaffirmationoftheoriesthroughstrictscientificmethodtosuggestthatmetaphysicalspeculationshouldbeavoided ItwasdevelopedbyAugusteComteinthemiddleofthe19thcentury InterpretationofCulturalTerms 36 TextStudy II 2 8 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms JeremyBentham杰里米 邊沁 1748 1832 AnEnglishjurist philosopher andlegalandsocialreformer HeheldsomeradicalpoliticalideasasaleadingtheoristinAnglo Americanphilosophyoflaw Hewasbestknownforhisadvocacyofutilitarianism hisconceptofanimalrights andhisoppositiontotheideaofnaturalrights InterpretationofCulturalTerms 37 TextStudy II 2 9 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms JohnStuartMill約翰 穆勒 1806 1875 Britishphilosopher politicaleconomist civilservantandMemberofParliament aninfluentialliberalthinkerofthe19thcentury Hewasanexponentofutilitarianism anethicaltheoryinitiatedbyJeremyBentham althoughhisconceptionofthetheorywasverydifferentfromthelatter InterpretationofCulturalTerms 38 TextStudy II 2 10 TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms Utilitarianism功利主義 Theideathatthemoralworthofanactionissolelydeterminedbyitscontributiontooverallutility thatis itscontributiontohappinessorpleasureasissummedupamongallpersons Itisthusaformofconsequentialism meaningthatthemoralworthofanactionisdeterminedbyitsoutcome theendsjustifythemeans InterpretationofCulturalTerms 39 TextStudy II 3 1 TextStudy ComprehensionExercises Trueorfalsequestions ComprehensionExercises 1 Lockerejectstheideaofinnateknowledgeandarguesfortheacquisitionofknowledgefromthesenses 2 ThelateRenaissancefocusedonthemetaphysicalandrationalistphilosophy whiletheEnlightenmentwasbasedonepistemologyandempiricism 3 Lockerejectedthedivisionoflegislativepowerandadministrativepower 4 Berkeleywasthefatherofaphilosophicalschoolcalledphenomenalism 5 Hume sempiricistphilosophygreatlyinfluencedImmanuelKant scriticalphilosophy T T T F T 40 TextStudy II 4 1 TextStudy ThinkandDiscuss GiveabriefintroductiontoLocke slife ideasandgreatworks JohnLocke 1632 1704 wasaBritishphilosopher Oxfordacademicandmedicalresearcher whoseassociationwithAnthonyAshleyCooper latertheFirstEarlofShaftesbury ledhimtobecomesuccessivelyagovernmentofficialcollectinginformationabouttradeandcolonies Hewasalsoaneconomicwriter oppositionalpoliticalactivist andfinallyarevolutionarywhosecauseultimatelytriumphedintheGloriousRevolutionof1688 MuchofLocke sworkischaracterizedbyoppositiontoauthoritarianism Thisoppositionisonthelevelofboththeindividual ThinkandDiscuss 41 individualandtheinstitutionssuchasgovernmentandchurch Fortheindividual Lockewantseachofustoseektruthbyreasoningratherthansimplyaccepttheopinionofauthorities Onthelevelofinstitutionsitbecomesimportanttodistinguishthelegitimatefromtheillegitimatefunctionsofinstitutionsandtomakethecorrespondingdistinctionfortheusesofforcebytheseinstitutions ThepositivesideofLocke santi authoritarianismisthatusingreasontograspthetruthanddeterminingthelegitimatefunctionsofinstitutionswilloptimizetheindividualandsocietyinrespecttoitsmaterialandspiritualwelfare This inturn amountstofollowingnaturallawandthefulfillmentofthedivinepurposeforhumanity Locke ssignificantAnEssayConcerningHumanUnderstanding TextStudy II 4 2 TextStudy ThinkandDiscuss ThinkandDiscuss 42 TextStudy II 4 3 TextStudy ThinkandDiscuss UnderstandingdealswiththelimitsofhumanunderstandingofGod theself naturalbeingsandartifacts aswellasdifferentkindsofideas Ittellsusindetailwhatonecanlegitimatelyclaimtoknowandwhatonecannot Lockealsowroteavarietyofimportantpolitical religiousandeducationalworksincludingTwoTreatisesofGovernment LettersConcerningToleration TheReasonablenessofChristianityandSomeThoughtsConcerningEducation ThinkandDiscuss 43 TextStudy II 1 1 pop TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 44 TextStudy II 1 2 pop TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 45 TextStudy II 1 3 pop TextStudy MainIdeas MainIdeas 46 TextStudy III 1 1 1 MainIdeas TextStudy MainIdeas 47 TextStudy III 1 1 2 MainIdeas TextStudy MainIdeas 48 TextStudy III 1 1 3 MainIdeas TextStudy MainIdeas 49 TextStudy III 1 1 4 MainIdeas TextStudy MainIdeas 50 TextStudy III 1 1 5 MainIdeas TextStudy MainIdeas 51 TextStudy III 2 1 InterpretationofCulturalTerms TextStudy theIndexLibrorumProhibitorum禁書目錄 ListofProhibitedBooks alistofpublicationsprohibitedbytheRomanCatholicChurch Theavowedaimofthelistwastoprotectthefaithandmoralsofthefaithfulbypreventingthereadingofimmoralbooksorworkscontainingtheologicalfallacies InterpretationofCulturalTerms 52 TextStudy III 2 2 InterpretationofCulturalTerms TextStudy JeanleRondd Alembert達(dá)蘭貝爾 1717 1783 AFrenchmathematician mechanician physicistandphilosopher Hewasalsotheco editorwithDenisDiderotoftheEncyclopaedia D Alembert smethodforsolvingthewaveequationisnamedafterhim InterpretationofCulturalTerms 53 TextStudy III 2 3 InterpretationofCulturalTerms TextStudy Paul HenriHolbach霍爾巴哈 1723 1789 AFrenchauthor philosopherandencyclopedist HewasbornPaulHeinrichDietrichinGermanybutlivedandworkedmainlyinParis Heismostfamousforbeingoneofthefirstself describedatheistsinEurope InterpretationofCulturalTerms 54 TextStudy III 2 4 InterpretationofCulturalTerms TextStudy InterpretationofCulturalTerms ClaudeAdrienHelvetius愛爾維修 1715 1771 AFrenchphilosopherwhopublishedhisphilosophicalmagnumopusDel esprit OnMind in1758 Itsatheistic utilitarianandegalitariandoctrinesraisedapublicoutcryandHelv tiuswasforcedtoissueseveralretractions 55 TextStudy III 3 1 ComprehensionExercises TextStudy ComprehensionExercises Whichofthefollowingphilosophersfirstputforwardtheideaofthedivisionofpower DavidHume B JohnLocke C GeorgeBerkeley D Voltaire Multiplechoice 56 TextStudy III 3 2 ComprehensionExercise TextStudy ComprehensionExercises 2 TheFrenchDeclarationofHumanRightsandtheAmericanDeclarationofIndependenceowedmuchoftheirsourcesandinspirationto SpiritofLaws 1748 A Montesquieu sB Voltaire sC Rousseau sD Diderot s Multiplechoice 57 TextStudy III 3 3 ComprehensionExercise TextStudy ComprehensionExercises 3 Montesquieu stheoryofthedivisionofpowerdividesthepoliticalauthorityinto legislative administrativeandjudicialpowersB legislative executiveandjudicialpowersC legislative executiveandelectoralpowersD legislative executiveandlawenforcementpowers Multiplechoice 58 TextStudy III 3 4 ComprehensionExercise TextStudy ComprehensionExercises 4 Rousseauisfamousforhisideaof thedivinerightofthekingB thesocialcontractC thedivinerightofthehumanbeingsD empiricism Multiplechoice 59 TextStudy III 3 5 ComprehensionExercise TextStudy ComprehensionExercises 5 TheEnlightenmentisnotopposedto A superstitionB feudalismC rationalismD absolutism Multiplechoice 60 TextStudy III 4 1 ThinkandDiscuss TextStudy 1 BrieflyintroduceoneortworepresentativefiguresoftheEnlightenmentandtheircentralideas VoltaireandMontesquieuaretwooftherepresentativefiguresoftheEnlightenment VoltaireexposedthedarksideofFrancesuchasthecorruptionandinjusticeofChristianitybylaunchinghistheoryonhumannature Also hearguedforthefreedomandequalityofordinarypeople What smore hestronglycondemnedfeudalautocracyandputforwardthetheoryoftheenlightenedmonarchy ThinkandDiscuss 61 TextStudy III 4 2 ThinkandDiscuss TextStudy Montesquieu spoliticaltheorydevelopedtheprincipleofdividingpoliticalpoweralthoughtheprincipleitselfwasnothisinvention MontesquieucontributedsignificantlytotheestablishmentofthemodernWesternstatebyexposingthenatureofstateandhumanbeingsinhisgreatworkSpiritofLawwhichhaswide ranginginfluenceonthelatergenerationsofmodernWesternpoliticalthinkingandpractice ThinkandDiscuss 62 TextStudy III 4 3 ThinkandDiscuss TextStudy ForMontesquieu itwasclimatethatcontributedmosttotheformationofasocietyandhebelieveditwasshowninnationalc