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L4 WHO has been actively participating in the development of principles and recommendation for the safety assessment of GM foods derived from genetically modified organisms (GMO). 世界衛(wèi)生組織現(xiàn)已積極的參與到評價對轉基因食品安全的原則和建議中。 世界衛(wèi)生組織現(xiàn)已積極的參與到對轉基因食品的安全評估的原則和建議的發(fā)展中。 The result developed in the course of various expert consultations from the basis for guidelines on national levels and are presently being incorporated into internationally recognized standards. 不同專家基于本國的技術水平而商討的結果目前已被作為公認的權威標準。 這個結果在各種專家磋商會議中得以發(fā)展并形成了國家水平指導方針的基礎，目前正編入國際公認的標準中。 The next generation of genetically modified foods will be crops with improved nutritional value, thus crossing the borderline to “functional foods” and “nutraceuticals”. 我方準備把高蛋白玉米作為下一代的轉基因食品，并將打破功能食品與螺旋桿菌間定義上的灰色界限 下一代轉基因食品將是營養(yǎng)價值得到提高的作物，因此它跨越了功能食品和營養(yǎng)食品的界限。 Evaluations will increasingly have to consider the impact of a GM food on the overall nutritional status taking into account the different needs in developed and developing countries . 評估機構必將傾向于考慮轉基因食品對人體蛋白比率的影響以確保其符合發(fā)展中與發(fā)達國家的不同需求 考慮到發(fā)展國家和發(fā)展中國家的不同需求，評估將越加考慮轉基因食品在總營養(yǎng)狀況方面的影響。 So far there is no report on any adverse effects on humans resulting from the consumption of foods produced by application of recombinant DNA techniques . 到目前為止，人類消費轉基因食品的危害還未見報道。 到目前為止，還沒有文獻報道有關人類因為消費應用重組DNA技術所生產(chǎn)的食品而產(chǎn)生不良影響。 However , the benefits expected from the next generation of GM crops (improved nutritional value , functional foods ) will result in new issues (complex metabolic changes , significant impact om ocerall nutritional status ) and thus will pose new challenges in terms of food safety assessment . 然而，我們期望在下一代基因作物（如營養(yǎng)價值的提高，功能性作物）得到好處的同時也會帶來一些新的問題（如復雜的代謝變化，對總營養(yǎng)狀況的明顯影響)，因此會對食品安全評估帶來新的挑戰(zhàn) This paper describes the role of WHO in the development of principles , recommendations and guidelines for the safety assessment of foods produced by means of recombinant DNA techniques and outlines the challenges to be met in future activities . 本文描述了世界衛(wèi)生組在以下幾個方面的作用：評估由DNA重組技術生產(chǎn)的食品安全性的發(fā)展原則，建議與指導方針，以及評估未來的挑戰(zhàn)綱要。 本文描述了WHO在關于DNA重組技術生產(chǎn)的食品的安全評估的原則，推薦和指導方針的建立發(fā)展中的重要作用，同時概述將來的活動中可能的困難和挑戰(zhàn)。 WHO/FAO were among the first organizations to elaborate the general principles underlying the safety assessment of foods produced by using recombinant DNA techniques . WHO和FAO是首批進行詳述評估應用DNA重組技術生產(chǎn)的食品安全性的一般原則的組織機構。 WHO和FAO是首批對應用DNA重組技術生產(chǎn)食品安全評估的總的原則作審批的組織。 This concept is used to identify similarities and differences between the GM food and a comparator with a history of safe use which subsequently guides the safety assessment process 該實質(zhì)等同的概念被用于鑒定轉基因食品和一般食品的相同和區(qū)別之處，指導此后評估的程序。 這個概念（“物質(zhì)平衡”）用來鑒定在轉基因食品和有安全使用歷史的參照食品間的相似和不同及其將會進一步指導安全評估的進程。 There are different philosophies worldwide regarding the need for additional regulatory oversight on GM foods going beyond the requirements of laws wxisting for traditional foods 世界各國關于超出現(xiàn)行傳統(tǒng)食品法規(guī)所要求的轉基因食品額外的監(jiān)管有不同的觀點。 Nevertheless, a general consensus has been developed on the major scientific principles underlying the safety assessment of GM foods. 盡管這樣，構成轉基因食品的安全評估的基礎的科學原則已達成一致。 WHO plays a central role in the Codex Alimentarius Commission , an intergovernmental body set up to establish international standards on foods . WHO 在食品法典委員會起中心作用，一個由政府間建立的用來制定國際間食品水平的機構。 It must be differentiated between labeling base on potential safety issues (e. g. substantial differences in composition, presence of an allergenic protein) and labeling based on the sole “right of the consumer on information”. 應該標注“潛在安全問題”（如，存在成分實質(zhì)區(qū)別，含有致敏蛋白），還是標注“正常消費信息之間”，這之間存在分歧。 我們必須把這兩類標準區(qū)分開來，一類是潛在安全問題的標準（如物質(zhì)組成的不同，引起的過敏性蛋白），一類是建立在消費者知情權的標準上。 The concept of “substantial equivalence”, one of the key elements, proved to be suitable for the safety assessment of the first generation of genetically modified crops. 物質(zhì)平衡的概念，作為主要因素之一，被證實適用于對第一代轉基因作物作出安全評估 The next generation of GM foods will not be limited to plants with agronomic advantage (i.e. Increased yield due to herbicide-tolerance or insect-resistance) but will focus on improvements of the nutritional properties of a crop. 下一代轉基因食品不會局限在那些具有農(nóng)業(yè)優(yōu)勢的作物（比如說依靠除草劑耐受性或者抗蟲的產(chǎn)量提高），而是聚焦在作物營養(yǎng)特性的提高 The broad spectrum of fermentation processes applied in food production and the important role of microorganisms in functional foods (e. g. probiotics) demonstrate the enormous potential of GM microorganisms in food industry. 利用微生物發(fā)酵已在食品生產(chǎn)中得以廣泛應用，并且在功能食品中發(fā)揮著重要作用（如益生菌）；這些作用說明了轉基因微生物在食品工業(yè)中存在極大的潛能。 In addition to microorganisms, plants and animals will be increasing seen as “bioreactor” enabling the production of broad spectrum food ingredients, food additives or food contact materials. 除微生物之外，植物和動物也越來越多的被視作 “生物反應器”，它能生產(chǎn)的一系列食品成分，食品添加劑和與食品相關的原料。 Expert consultations are useful tools to gather and evaluate the data available on an interdisciplinary basis and to transform then into generally accepted recommendation. 開展專家研討會是有效的行使責任的方式，以便來收集和評估科學間的有效數(shù)據(jù)，并且將其轉化成可接受的建議。 Regional workshops involving the legislators of the respective countries should then be held in order to convey the recommendations and to assist to in transforming the essential principles into a regulatory framework. 為了傳達該建議并有助于核心原則到規(guī)章制度的轉化，應當召開包括各國立法委的區(qū)域專題討論會。 Considering the potential of GM microorganisms and the expected developments in the field of GM animals, these GMO should be subject to special evaluation. 鑒于考慮到轉基因微生物的潛能和轉基因動物領域的預期發(fā)展方向，這些轉基因生物應該受到特殊的評估。 However, labeling requirements in conjunction with traceability strategies can be used as tools to increase the transparency of food production processes and thus to contribute indirectly to food safety in general. 然而，與可追溯性策略相關的必要標簽可被作為一種工具，來加大食品生產(chǎn)加工的通明度；總的來說，這樣間接有助于評價食品的安全。 The discussion on the application of recombinant DNA techniques should be actively used for education of consumers on traditional procedures applied in the production of foods. 應用DNA重組技術的討論會應積極應用于培訓消費者了解食品生產(chǎn)中的傳統(tǒng)程序。 Transparency in traditional food processing as well as in the application of modern techniques would help to increase the understanding and contribute to food safety. 傳統(tǒng)食品的加工過程以及現(xiàn)代技術應用的透明度將會有助于增加人們的理解和有助于食品安全。 L5 Carboxyl groups of cell-wall peptides confer important flocculating characteristics on brewing yeasts , facilitating post-fermentation solid-liquid separation . 位于釀造酵母細胞壁上肽的羧基集團具有重要的凝聚特性，這有利于發(fā)酵后物質(zhì)的固液分離。 The yeast-cell envelope contains a plasma membrane , a periplasmic space and a cell wall consisting mainly of polysaccharides with a small amount of peptide material . 酵母細胞外膜包括質(zhì)膜，周質(zhì)空間以及由多聚糖為主和少量肽物質(zhì)所構成的細胞壁。 The wall component is a semi-rigid but solute permeable structure which provides considerably compressional and tensile strength to yeasts . 細胞壁是一種半鋼性的但溶質(zhì)可透過的結構，這些結構提供給酵母一定的抗壓縮和抗拉伸的強度。 Sugars are transported across the cell membrane by either active or passive transport , mediated by inducible or constitutibely-produced permeases . 糖通過主動或被動運輸進出細胞膜，可以通過誘變型或組成型的透性酶來調(diào)節(jié)。 Kluyveromyces fragilis and kulyveromyces lactis , which unlikes S . Cerevisiae can ferment lactose , contain a lactose permease system for lactose transport into the cell where it is hydrolyzed to glucose and galactose which enter glycolysis . Kluyveromyces fragilis和kulyveromyces lactis 與S . Cerevisiae酵母不同，它不能發(fā)酵乳糖，但他們具有可以使乳糖運輸?shù)郊毎麅?nèi)的乳糖透性酶系統(tǒng)，在細胞內(nèi)乳糖被水解成葡萄糖和半乳糖而進入糖酵解循環(huán)。 Interest has developed in the use of high alcohol tolerant yeasts in high-gravity brewing processes and in alcohol production for distillation whit a view to increasing plant productivety and decreasing distillation cost . 考慮到降低蒸餾成本和增加產(chǎn)量，在高比重釀造過程和酒精蒸餾中，人們對耐酒精能力強的酵母的利用產(chǎn)生越來越強的興趣。 Since most bacteria , with the exception of acetic acid and lactic acid bacteria , prefer more neutral pH values the susceptibility of wine musts to infection is greatly reduced. 除了乙酸和乳酸菌以外。大多數(shù)的細菌都喜歡較中性的pH，從而使葡萄汁對細菌感染的敏感性大為降低。 L6 Amino acids are produced using a range of technologies including direct fermentation , biotransformation of precursors using cells or enzymes , extraction of protein hydrolysates and chemical synthesis . 氨基酸的生產(chǎn)是利用許多技術包括直接發(fā)酵，細胞或酶作用于前體的生物轉化，蛋白水解產(chǎn)物的萃取以及化學合成法。 Because of cell metabolic regulatory mechanisms , particularly end-product repression and inhibition, substantial levels of amino acids are rarely excreted by wild-type isolates. 因為細胞的代謝調(diào)節(jié)機制，特別是終產(chǎn)物的抑制作用，野生的種群很少分泌大量水平的氨基酸。 Auxotrophic mutants , which lack the enzyme needed to form the regulatory effector metabolite (often the end-product), may accumulate and excrete the metabolic intermediate which is the substrate for the eliminated enzyme . 營養(yǎng)缺陷突變株，它缺失了形成調(diào)控效應代謝物（通常是終產(chǎn)物） 所需的酶，因此可以積累和分泌大量，即缺失酶的底物的。 End-product inhibition by the amino acid product of an unbranched biosynthetic pathway may be avoided by the development of regulatory mutants , having an altered feedback-insensitive key enzyme , thus allowing accumulation of the particular amino acid . 沒有支路的生物合成途徑生產(chǎn)的氨基酸終產(chǎn)物的抑制作用也許可以通過調(diào)控突變體的發(fā)展而避免，該調(diào)控突變體具有對反饋抑制不敏感的關鍵酶，從而可以積累某些特殊的氨基酸。 L7 Depending on the system of manufacture and the coagulum , yogurts may be classified as being of two main types , set or stirred . 根據(jù)生產(chǎn)的工藝和產(chǎn)品凝固的特性，酸奶可以分為兩種類型，凝固性和攪拌型。 Tow lactose-fermenting bacteria , lactobacillus bulgaricus and streptococcus thermophilus , are used as the starter culture to make yogurt . 2種束狀乳糖發(fā)酵菌：保加利亞乳酸桿菌和嗜熱鏈球菌被用作酸奶制作的培養(yǎng)菌種。 Equal numbers of L.bulgaricus and S.thermophilus are desirable for flavor and texture production . 等量的保加利亞乳酸桿菌和嗜熱鏈球菌（生產(chǎn)出的）產(chǎn)品風味和質(zhì)感是最佳的 The production of the characteristic flavor by the aforementioned cultures is a function of time as well as the sugar content of the starting yogurt material . 由上述菌種產(chǎn)生的獨特風味是時間與酸奶發(fā)酵物質(zhì)含糖量的函數(shù)。 Additives of several kinds are also permitted in commercially produced yogurt , such as nutritive carbohydrate sweeteners , coloring , stabilizers ( for smooth texture and longer shelf life ) ,and fruit preparations for flavoring . 幾種添加劑允許在商品化的酸奶中使用，例如碳水化合物營養(yǎng)甜味劑、色素、穩(wěn)定劑（使組織結構光滑細膩及延長貨架壽命），以及增加酸奶風味的水果。 The product is prepared either by reducing the water content of either whole or skim milk by at least one fourth (may be done in a vacuum pan following sterilization of milk ), or by adding about 5%milk solids followed by water reduction (condensing) 產(chǎn)品要么是降低全脂或脫脂牛奶水含量的四分之一（將滅菌后的牛奶放入真空盤中濃縮），要么是加入5%的乳固體后通過濃縮降低水分（濃縮變稠） The yogurt starter is now added at a level of around 2% by volume and incubated at 45`C for 3-5 hours followed by cooling to 5`C 加入的菌種占總體積的2%并在45`C下培養(yǎng)3-5小時，然后冷卻到5`C The titratable acidity of a good finished product is around 0.85-0.9% , and to get this amount of acidity the fermenting product should be removed from 45`C when the titratable acidity is around 0.65-0.70% 好的產(chǎn)品的滴定酸性約為0.85-0.9%，要獲得這個數(shù)量的酸性發(fā)酵產(chǎn)物應當在45C時滴定酸性為0.65-0.70%時候撤走 The coccus grows first during the fermentation followed by the rod , so that after around 3 hours , the numbers of the two organisms should be approximately equal. 在發(fā)酵過程中球菌先生長而后是桿菌，那樣約3小時后，兩菌種的數(shù)量會大致相等。 Yogurt and other cultured dairy foods are excellent sources of high-quality protein and certain B-complex vitamins and minerals . In addition to the nutritional importance of yogurt , it has been found to be of value in maintaining a balance in the intestinal microbial flora . 酸奶和其他培養(yǎng)乳制品是高品質(zhì)蛋白和B族維生素及礦物質(zhì)的很好的來源 。酸奶除了其營養(yǎng)價值，還發(fā)現(xiàn)了其在維持腸道菌群平衡的重要性。 緒論： This is particularly important for a food engineer since the commercial advantages of an optimal controlled process include it can provide better product quality and lower costs compared with an uncontrolled process. 這點對于食品工程師來說是非常重要的，因為商品化生產(chǎn)中，優(yōu)化控制的加工過程與一個非控制的加工過程而言，具有產(chǎn)品品質(zhì)高，生產(chǎn)費用少的優(yōu)點。 The food technologist can usually recognize fats when he sees them because they are quite different both in their physical properties and in their chemical composition from the other two main food constituents, carbohydrate and protein. 當食品科學工作者看到脂肪時，通?？梢源_認他們，因為不論在物理性質(zhì)和化學組成上，脂肪都與另外兩種主要食品組成成分（碳水化合物和蛋白質(zhì)）不同。 Computer control is the current by-word in fermentation technology and will soon reach the point where you dare not admit that your fermenters are not coupled to a computer; unfortunately, amidst the improvements this brings, we are beginning to see cases of the old dogma ‘instruments prevent creative thinking’ 計算機控制是現(xiàn)代發(fā)酵技術中的常用語，并且很快你就不能容忍你的發(fā)酵罐沒有被連接到計算機。不幸的是，在這過程中我們將開始看到舊的教條主義“儀器阻礙看創(chuàng)造性思維” It is possible,particularly in the case of an empty fermenter,that a vessel under vaccum could be deformed by the external air pressure,but the main reason for avoiding pressure below atmospheric within the fermenter is that the non-sterile(未經(jīng)滅菌的)air of environment could be drawn through any small leak in the welded seams of the vessel or pipeline,or through joints or valves. 在真空狀態(tài)下的發(fā)酵罐，尤其是空罐，在罐外氣壓作用下，可能發(fā)生形變，但是避免罐壓低于空氣壓力的原因，還是環(huán)境中未經(jīng)滅菌的空氣可能會從發(fā)酵罐及其管件焊縫的任何細微縫隙或通過連接件以及閥門吸入罐內(nèi)。